Angiotensin II increases activity of the epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) in distal nephron additively to aldosterone

Dietary salt intake controls epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC)-mediated Na+ reabsorption in the distal nephron by affecting status of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Whereas regulation of ENaC by aldosterone is generally accepted, little is known about whether other components of RAAS, such as angiotensin II (Ang II), have nonredundant to aldosterone-stimulatory actions on ENaC. We combined patch clamp electrophysiology and immunohistochemistry in freshly isolated split-opened distal nephrons of mice to determine the mechanism and molecular signaling pathway of Ang II regulation of ENaC. We found that Ang II acutely increases ENaC Po, whereas prolonged exposure to Ang II also induces translocation of α-ENaC toward the apical membrane in situ. Ang II actions on ENaC Po persist in the presence of saturated mineralocorticoid status. Moreover, aldosterone fails to stimulate ENaC acutely, suggesting that Ang II and aldosterone have different time frames of ENaC activation. AT1 but not AT2 receptors mediate Ang II actions on ENaC. Unlike its effect in vasculature, Ang II did not increase [Ca2+]i in split-opened distal nephrons as demonstrated using ratiometric Fura-2-based microscopy. However, application of Ang II to mpkCCDc14 cells resulted in generation of reactive oxygen species, as probed with fluorescent methods. Consistently, inhibiting NADPH oxidase with apocynin abolished Ang II-mediated increases in ENaC Po in murine distal nephron. Therefore, we concluded that Ang II directly regulates ENaC activity in the distal nephron, and this effect complements regulation of ENaC by aldosterone. We propose that stimulation of AT1 receptors with subsequent activation of NADPH oxidase signaling pathway mediates Ang II actions on ENaC.     

Regulation of epithelial Na+ channel activity by conserved serine/threonine switches within sorting signals

The PY and YXXphi motifs are canonical sorting signals involved in trafficking. Nedd4-2 and the mu(2)-subunit of the AP-2 complex target these motifs to facilitate internalization. Epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) subunits contain both motifs in their cytosolic COOH termini where they overlap ((S/T)PPPXYX(S/T)phi). Just preceding the PY and embedded within the YXXphi motifs are conserved serine/threonine. We test here whether these conserved Ser/Thr modulate ENaC activity by influencing the function of the internalization domains. We find that co-expression of dominant-negative dynamin (K44A) with ENaC increases channel activity. Conversely, co-expression of Nedd4-2 and epsin with ENaC decrease activity. Alanine substitution of the conserved Thr(628) preceding the PY motif in gamma-mENaC had no effect on basal activity. Channels with this mutation, however, responded to K44A and epsin but not Nedd4-2. Similarly, mutation of the proline repeat in the PY motif of gamma-mENaC disrupted only Nedd4-2 regulation having no effect on regulation by K44A and epsin. Alanine substitution of the conserved Thr within the YXX motif of gamma-mENaC (T635A) increased basal activity. Channels containing this mutation responded to Nedd4-2 but not K44A and epsin. Channels containing the T635(D/E) substitution in gamma-mENaC did not have increased basal activity and responded to Nedd4-2 but not K44A. The double mutant T628A,T635A did not respond to Nedd4-2 or K44A. Mutation of Thr(628) and Thr(635) also disrupted ENaC precipitation with the mu(2)-subunit of the AP-2 complex. Moreover, the YXXphi motif, independent of the PY motif, was sufficient to target degradation with T635A disrupting this effect. These results demonstrate that the overlapping PY and YXXphi motifs in ENaC are, in some instances, capable of independent function and that the Ser/Thr just preceding and within these domains impact this function.     

Acetylcholine-induced calcium signalling in adrenaline- and noradrenaline-containing adrenal chromaffin cells

Adrenal chromaffin cells secrete catecholamines in response to cholinergic receptor activation by acetylcholine (ACh). Characteristics of Ca(2+) transients induced by activation of nicotinic (nAChRs) and muscarinic (mAChRs) receptors were analyzed using Fura-2 fluorescent measurements on rat chromaffin cells. We first found two populations of chromaffin cells, which differently responded on AChR stimulation. In the first group (n-cells), consecutive ACh applications evoked persistent Ca(2+) transients, whereas desensitizing transients were observed in the other group (m-cells). The AChR agonists and antagonists precisely imitated or abolished the ACh action on n- and m-type cells, respectively. Cytochemical staining showed that n-cells contained adrenaline, whereas m-cells-noradrenaline. Thus, for the first time we found that nAChRs and mAChRs are differentially expressed in adrenergic and noradrenergic chromaffin cells, respectively. Our data suppose that chromaffin cells can be differentially regulated by incoming ACh signals and in such way release different substances-adrenaline and noradrenaline.     

Bradykinin acutely inhibits activity of the epithelial Na+ channel in mammalian aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron

Activation of the renal kallikrein-kinin system results in natriuresis and diuresis, suggesting its possible role in renal tubular sodium transport regulation. Here, we used patch-clamp electrophysiology to directly assess the effects of bradykinin (BK) on the epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) activity in freshly isolated split-opened murine aldosterone-sensitive distal nephrons (ASDNs). BK acutely inhibits ENaC activity by reducing channel open probability (P(o)) in a dose-dependent and reversible manner. Inhibition of B2 receptors with icatibant (HOE-140) abolished BK actions on ENaC. In contrast, activation of B1 receptors with the selective agonist Lys-des-Arg(9)-BK failed to reproduce BK actions on ENaC. This is consistent with B2 receptors playing a critical role in mediating BK signaling to ENaC. BK has little effect on ENaC P(o) when G(q/11) was inhibited with Gp antagonist 2A. Moreover, inhibition of phospholipase C (PLC) with U73122, but not saturation of cellular cAMP levels with the membrane-permeable nonhydrolysable cAMP analog 8-cpt-cAMP, prevents BK actions on ENaC activity. This argues that BK stimulates B2 receptors with subsequent activation of G(q/11)-PLC signaling cascade to acutely inhibit ENaC activity. Activation of BK signaling acutely depletes apical PI(4,5)P(2) levels. However, inhibition of Ca(2+) pump SERCA of the endoplasmic reticulum with thapsigargin does not prevent BK signaling to ENaC. Furthermore, caffeine, while producing a similar rise in [Ca(2+)](i) as in response to BK stimulation, fails to recapitulate BK actions on ENaC. Therefore, we concluded that BK acutely inhibits ENaC P(o) in mammalian ASDN via stimulation of B2 receptors and following depletion of PI(4,5)P(2), but not increases in [Ca(2+)](i).     

Voltage-dependent gating underlies loss of ENaC function in Pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1

Here we explore the mechanism and associated structure-function implications of loss of function for epithelial Na⁺ channel (ENaC) containing a pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 (PHA-1)-causing missense point mutation. As expected, human ENaC that contained subunits harboring PHA-1-causing substitutions within an absolutely conserved, cytosolic Gly residue (e.g., βG37S) had significantly less activity. Unexpectedly, though, such substitution also results in voltage sensitivity with greater activity at hyperpolarizing potentials. This is a consequence of voltage-dependent changes in the single-channel open probability and is not species- or subunit-dependent. Voltage sensitivity in PHA-1 mutants stems from the disruption of critical structure, rather than the development of new properties resulting from the introduction of novel side chains. Residues near the conserved His-Gly sequence of G95 in α-mENaC are particularly important for voltage sensing. Although substitution of I93 in α-mENaC results in voltage sensing, it also slows the activation and deactivation kinetics enough to enable capture of the dynamic changes in single-channel open probability that account for changes in macroscopic activity. This provides definitive proof of the mechanism that underlies loss of function. In addition, the voltage dependence of ENaC with PHA-1 substitutions is akin to that which results from substitution of a critical, interfacial Trp residue conserved at the intracellular base of TM1 (e.g., W112 in α-mENaC). Dynamic interactions between similarly positioned His and Trp residues are essential for gating and the girdle-like structure that lines the intracellular mouth of the M2 proton channel. The similar residues in ENaC may serve a shared function, suggesting the possibility of an intracellular girdle just below the mouth of the ENaC pore.     

Quantifying RhoA facilitated trafficking of the epithelial Na+ channel toward the plasma membrane with total internal reflection fluorescence-fluorescence recovery after photobleaching

The epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) plays a central role in control of epithelial surface hydration and vascular volume. Similar to other ion channels, ENaC activity is set, in part, by its membrane levels. The small G protein RhoA increases ENaC activity by increasing the membrane levels of this channel. We hypothesize that RhoA increases ENaC activity by promoting channel trafficking to the plasma membrane. Few experimental methods are available to directly visualize trafficking of ion channels to the plasma membrane. Here we combine electrophysiology with two complementary imaging methods, total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, to study the mechanistic basis of RhoA actions on ENaC. Patch clamp results demonstrate that RhoA increases ENaC activity in an additive manner with dominant-negative dynamin. This is consistent with a mechanism of increased ENaC trafficking to the membrane. Direct visualization of ENaC movement near the plasma membrane with total internal reflection fluorescence-fluorescence recovery after photobleaching revealed that RhoA accelerates ENaC trafficking toward the membrane. RhoA-facilitated movement of the channel was sensitive to disrupting the endomembrane system. Moreover, facilitating retrieval decreased ENaC activity but not trafficking toward the membrane. ENaC at the plasma membrane clustered and was laterally immobile suggesting that the cytoskeleton tethers or corrals membrane resident channels or membrane-directed vesicles containing ENaC. Disrupting microtubules but not microfilaments led to reorganization of ENaC clusters and slowed trafficking toward the membrane. The cytoskeleton is an established target for RhoA signaling. We conclude that RhoA, likely through effects on the cytoskeleton, promotes ENaC trafficking to the plasma membrane to increase channel membrane levels and activity.     

Insight toward epithelial Na+ channel mechanism revealed by the acid-sensing ion channel 1 structure

The epithelial Na(+) channel/degenerin (ENaC/DEG) protein family includes a diverse group of ion channels, including nonvoltage-gated Na(+) channels of epithelia and neurons, and the acid-sensing ion channel 1 (ASIC1). In mammalian epithelia, ENaC helps regulate Na(+) and associated water transport, making it a critical determinant of systemic blood pressure and pulmonary mucosal fluidity. In the nervous system, ENaC/DEG proteins are related to sensory transduction. While the importance and physiological function of these ion channels are established, less is known about their structure. One hallmark of the ENaC/DEG channel family is that each channel subunit has only two transmembrane domains connected by an exceedingly large extracellular loop. This subunit structure was recently confirmed when Jasti and colleagues determined the crystal structure of chicken ASIC1, a neuronal acid-sensing ENaC/DEG channel. By mapping ENaC to the structural coordinates of cASIC1, as we do here, we hope to provide insight toward ENaC structure. ENaC, like ASIC1, appears to be a trimeric channel containing 1alpha, 1beta, and 1gamma subunit. Heterotrimeric ENaC and monomeric ENaC subunits within the trimer possibly contain many of the major secondary, tertiary, and quaternary features identified in cASIC1 with a few subtle but critical differences. These differences are expected to have profound effects on channel behavior. In particular, they may contribute to ENaC insensitivity to acid and to its constitutive activity in the absence of time- and ligand-dependent inactivation. Experiments resulting from this comparison of cASIC1 and ENaC may help clarify unresolved issues related to ENaC architecture, and may help identify secondary structures and residues critical to ENaC function.     

Implementing Patch Clamp and Live Fluorescence Microscopy to Monitor Functional Properties of Freshly Isolated PKD Epithelium

Cyst initiation and expansion during polycystic kidney disease is a complex process characterized by abnormalities in tubular cell proliferation, luminal fluid accumulation and extracellular matrix formation. Activity of ion channels and intracellular calcium signaling are key physiologic parameters which determine functions of tubular epithelium. We developed a method suitable for real-time observation of ion channels activity with patch-clamp technique and registration of intracellular Ca²⁺ level in epithelial monolayers freshly isolated from renal cysts. PCK rats, a genetic model of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD), were used here for ex vivo analysis of ion channels and calcium flux. Described here is a detailed step-by-step procedure designed to isolate cystic monolayers and non-dilated tubules from PCK or normal Sprague Dawley (SD) rats, and monitor single channel activity and intracellular Ca²⁺ dynamics. This method does not require enzymatic processing and allows analysis in a native setting of freshly isolated epithelial monolayer. Moreover, this technique is very sensitive to intracellular calcium changes and generates high resolution images for precise measurements. Finally, isolated cystic epithelium can be further used for staining with antibodies or dyes, preparation of primary cultures and purification for various biochemical assays.     

Roles of Nicotinic and Muscarinic Receptors in Calcium Signaling and Transmitter Release

Activation of acetylcholine receptors (AChR) triggers catecholamine release from adrenal chromaffin cells and release of neurotransmitters in neuron-to-neuron and neuromuscular junctions, including those on smooth muscle cells. Calcium ions play the role of the main intracellular messenger, which mediates these processes. In our study, we explored the properties of Ca²⁺ signaling triggered by activation of AChR by analyzing the characteristics of Ca²⁺ transients induced by selective activation of nicotinic (nAChR) and muscarinic (mAChR) cholinoreceptors using Fura-2 fluorescent measurements in experiments on rat chromaffin cells. Two populations of chromaffin cells, which in a different manner responded to AChR stimulation, were classified. We found that the mean frequency of quantum release induced by ACh is considerably higher than that during hyperpotassium cell depolarization. Comparative analysis of single secretory events showed that, in the case of stimulation by ACh, single secretory spikes demonstrate faster kinetic characteristics than those induced by depolarization. Statistical analysis of the integral magnitude (area) of single secretory spikes evoked by both types of stimulation showed no significant difference despite amplitude and kinetic dissimilarities between such secretory events. Mathematical modeling of the dynamics of the exocytotic processes led to the conclusion that the reason for the specific kinetic characteristics of single secretory responses may be different diameters of the secretory pores formed during fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane.     

Ras couples phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase to the epithelial Na channel

Aldosterone induces the expression of the small G protein K-Ras. Both K-Ras and its 1st effector phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase (PI3-K) are necessary and sufficient for the activation of ENaC increasing channel open probability. The cell signaling mechanism by which K-Ras enhances ENaC activity, however, is uncertain. We demonstrate here that K-Ras significantly activates human ENaC reconstituted in Chinese hamster ovary cells ∼3-fold. Activation in response to K-Ras was sensitive to the irreversible PI3-K inhibitor wortmannin but not the competitive LY294002 inhibitor of this phospholipid kinase. Similarly, a PI3-K 1st effector-specific Ras mutant (G12:C40) enhanced ENaC activity in a wortmannin but not LY294002 sensitive manner. Constitutively active PI3-K also enhanced ENaC activity but in a wortmannin and LY294002 sensitive manner with the effects of PI3-K and K-Ras not being additive. The activation of ENaC by PI3-K was also sensitive to intracellular GDPβS. Constitutively active PI3-K that is incapable of interacting with K-Ras (K227E p110α) acted as dominant negative with respect to the regulation of ENaC even in the presence of K-Ras. K-Ras is known to directly interact with PI3-K with aldosterone promoting this interaction. Here we demonstrate that K-Ras also interacts with ENaC through an, as yet, undetermined mechanism. We conclude that K-Ras enhances ENaC activity by localizing PI3-K near the channel and stimulating of PI3-K activity.