Intracellular calcium redistribution during mating in Chlamydomonas reinhardii

Gametes of the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardii recognize and adhere to cells of the opposite mating type by flagellar contact. Adhesion between these specialized organelles signals a rapid series of mating events which result in gamete fusion. The sequence of morphological changes (flagellar tip activation, cell wall loss, and mating structure elongation), which occur as a consequence of the sexual signalling, have been characterized. The signalling mechanisms have, however, not been defined. Calcium is known to be involved during fertilization of animal species. Increased intracellular free calcium, which can be achieved either by calcium influx or by mobilization of ions from intracellular stores, has been observed during activation of both eggs and sperm. A recent report by Bloodgood & Levin that gametes of C. reinhardii preloaded with 45Ca showed a transient increase in Ca efflux following mating, suggests that intracellular Ca redistribution may also accompany mating in this algal species. We have used X-ray microanalysis to analyze the subcellular distribution of bound calcium during mating in Chlamydomonas reinhardii. X-ray maps reveal that calcium is sequestered in discrete granules within the gamete cell body prior to mating and that during activation and cell fusion, calcium is diffuse throughout the cell. This suggests the possibility that calcium serves as a second messenger in this species.     

The strength of SMAD1/5 activity determines the mode of stem cell division in the developing spinal cord

The different modes of stem cell division are tightly regulated to balance growth and differentiation during organ development and homeostasis. However, the mechanisms controlling such events are not fully understood. We have developed markers that provide the single cell resolution necessary to identify the three modes of division occurring in a developing nervous system: self-expanding, self-renewing, and self-consuming. Characterizing these three modes of division during interneuron generation in the developing chick spinal cord, we demonstrated that they correlate to different levels of activity of the canonical bone morphogenetic protein effectors SMAD1/5. Functional in vivo experiments showed that the premature neuronal differentiation and changes in cell cycle parameters caused by SMAD1/5 inhibition were preceded by a reduction of self-expanding divisions in favor of self-consuming divisions. Conversely, SMAD1/5 gain of function promoted self-expanding divisions. Together, these results lead us to propose that the strength of SMAD1/5 activity dictates the mode of stem cell division during spinal interneuron generation.     

Monoacylglycerols Activate TRPV1 – A Link between Phospholipase C and TRPV1

Phospholipase C-mediated hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate generates diacylglycerol, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and protons, all of which can regulate TRPV1 activity via different mechanisms. Here we explored the possibility that the diacylglycerol metabolites 2-arachidonoylglycerol and 1-arachidonoylglycerol, and not metabolites of these monoacylglycerols, activate TRPV1 and contribute to this signaling cascade. 2-Arachidonoylglycerol and 1-arachidonoylglycerol activated native TRPV1 on vascular sensory nerve fibers and heterologously expressed TRPV1 in whole cells and inside-out membrane patches. The monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitors methylarachidonoyl-fluorophosphonate and JZL184 prevented the metabolism of deuterium-labeled 2-arachidonoylglycerol and deuterium-labeled 1-arachidonoylglycerol in arterial homogenates, and enhanced TRPV1-mediated vasodilator responses to both monoacylglycerols. In mesenteric arteries from TRPV1 knock-out mice, vasodilator responses to 2-arachidonoylglycerol were minor. Bradykinin and adenosine triphosphate, ligands of phospholipase C-coupled membrane receptors, increased the content of 2-arachidonoylglycerol in dorsal root ganglia. In HEK293 cells expressing the phospholipase C-coupled histamine H₁ receptor, exposure to histamine stimulated the formation of 2-AG, and this effect was augmented in the presence of JZL184. These effects were prevented by the diacylglycerol lipase inhibitor tetrahydrolipstatin. Histamine induced large whole cell currents in HEK293 cells co-expressing TRPV1 and the histamine H₁ receptor, and the TRPV1 antagonist capsazepine abolished these currents. JZL184 increased the histamine-induced currents and tetrahydrolipstatin prevented this effect. The calcineurin inhibitor ciclosporin and the endogenous “entourage” compound palmitoylethanolamide potentiated the vasodilator response to 2-arachidonoylglycerol, disclosing TRPV1 activation of this monoacylglycerol at nanomolar concentrations. Furthermore, intracerebroventricular injection of JZL184 produced TRPV1-dependent antinociception in the mouse formalin test. Our results show that intact 2-arachidonoylglycerol and 1-arachidonoylglycerol are endogenous TRPV1 activators, contributing to phospholipase C-dependent TRPV1 channel activation and TRPV1-mediated antinociceptive signaling in the brain.     

Deliberately infecting healthy volunteers with malaria parasites: Perceptions and experiences of participants and other stakeholders in a Kenyan-based malaria infection study

Controlled human malaria infection (CHMI) studies involve the deliberate infection of healthy volunteers with malaria parasites under controlled conditions to study immune responses and/or test drug or vaccine efficacy. An empirical ethics study was embedded in a CHMI study at a Kenyan research programme to explore stakeholders’ perceptions and experiences of deliberate infection and moral implications of these. Data for this qualitative study were collected through focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and non-participant observation. Sixty-nine participants were involved, including CHMI study volunteers, community representatives and research staff. Data were managed using QSR Nvivo 10 and analysed using an inductive-deductive approach, guided by ethics literature. CHMI volunteers had reasonable understanding of the study procedures. Decisions to join were influenced by study incentives, trust in the research institution, their assessment of associated burdens and motivation to support malaria vaccine development. However, deliberate malaria infection was a highly unusual research strategy for volunteers, community representatives and some study staff. Volunteers’ experiences of physical, emotional and social burdens or harms were often greater than anticipated initially, and fluctuated over time, related to specific procedures and events. Although unlikely to deter volunteers' participation in similar studies in furture, we argue that the dissonance between level of understanding of the burdens involved and actual experiences are morally relevant in relation to community engagement, informed consent processes, and ongoing support for volunteers and research staff. We further argue that ethics oversight of CHMI studies should take account of these issues in deciding whether consent, engagement and the balance of benefits and harms are reasonable in a given context.     

Restriction fragment length polymorphism at the HLA-C locus

We have used the HLA-C-specific DNA probe pC250 to investigate restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) at the HLA-C locus. Genomic Southern blot hybridization included DNA prepared from a panel of homozygous typing cells representing serological specificities Cw1 to Cw8 and also from samples representing Cw blanks. Although many restriction nucleases failed to reveal any polymorphism, RFLPs were evident with Taq I, Pvu II, Bst XI, Nde 1, and Nci I in addition to the previously reported Eco RI. In the case of Bst XI, a unique RFLP defined a subset of serologically defined Cw blanks. Comparison of RFLP sizes with restriction fragment lengths obtained from the known HLA-Cw3 gene sequence permitted the localization of intragenic C locus RFLLs and the identification of a variable Taq I site in the second intron, a variable Nci I site near the end of the fourth exon, and a variable Pvu lI site in the fifth intron.