Enigma Prevents Cbl-c-Mediated Ubiquitination and Degradation of RETMEN2A

The Cbl proteins (Cbl, Cbl-b, and Cbl-c) are a highly conserved family of RING finger ubiquitin ligases (E3s) that function as negative regulators of tyrosine kinases in a wide variety of signal transduction pathways. In this study, we identify a new Cbl-c interacting protein, Enigma (PDLIM7). This interaction is specific to Cbl-c as Enigma fails to bind either of its closely related homologues, Cbl and Cbl-b. The binding between Enigma and Cbl-c is mediated through the LIM domains of Enigma as removal of all three LIM domains abrogates this interaction, while only LIM1 is sufficient for binding. Here we show that Cbl-c binds wild-type and MEN2A isoforms of the receptor tyrosine kinase, RET, and that Cbl-c enhances ubiquitination and degradation of activated RET. Enigma blocks Cbl-c-mediated RETMEN2A ubiquitination and degradation. Cbl-c decreased downstream ERK activation by RETMEN2A and co-expression of Enigma blocked the Cbl-c-mediated decrease in ERK activation. Enigma showed no detectable effect on Cbl-c-mediated ubiquitination of activated EGFR suggesting that this effect is specific to RET. Through mapping studies, we show that Cbl-c and Enigma bind RETMEN2A at different residues. However, binding of Enigma to RETMENA prevents Cbl-c recruitment to RETMEN2A. Consistent with these biochemical data, exploratory analyses of breast cancer patients with high expression of RET suggest that high expression of Cbl-c correlates with a good outcome, and high expression of Enigma correlates with a poor outcome. Together, these data demonstrate that Cbl-c can ubiquitinate and downregulate RETMEN2A and implicate Enigma as a positive regulator of RETMEN2A through blocking of Cbl-mediated ubiquitination and degradation.     

Regulation by copper of the expression of plastocyanin and cytochrome c552 in Chlamydomonas reinhardi.

Plastocyanin and cytochrome c552 are interchangeable electron carriers in the photosynthetic electron transfer chains of some cyanobacteria and green algae (P. M. Wood, Eur. J. Biochem. 87:9-19, 1978; G. Sandmann et al., Arch. Microbiol. 134:23-27, 1983). Chlamydomonas reinhardi cells respond to the availability of copper in the medium and accordingly accumulate either plastocyanin (if copper is available) or cytochrome c552 (if copper is not available). The response occurs in both heterotrophically and phototrophically grown cells. We have studied the molecular level at which this response occurs. No immunoreactive polypeptide is detectable under conditions where the mature protein is not spectroscopically detectable. Both plastocyanin and cytochrome c552 appear to be translated (in vitro) from polyadenylated mRNA as precursors of higher molecular weight. RNA was isolated from cells grown either under conditions favorable for the accumulation of plastocyanin (medium with Cu2+) or for the accumulation of cytochrome c552 (without Cu2+ added to the medium). Translatable mRNA for preapoplastocyanin was detected in both RNA preparations, although mature plastocyanin was detected in C. reinhardi cells only when copper was added to the culture. Translatable mRNA for preapocytochrome, on the other hand, was detected only in cells grown under conditions where cytochrome c552 accumulates (i.e., in the absence of copper). We conclude that copper-mediated regulation of plastocyanin and cytochrome c552 accumulation is effected at different levels, the former at the level of stable protein and the latter at the level of stable mRNA.     

Crystals of virus-like particles in the metacestodes of Taenia solium and T. crassiceps

Crystals of virus-like particles (VLP) are described as occurring in the nuclei of damaged tegumentary cytons from carcasses of Taenia solium metacestodes that had been stripped of their teguments. The VLP are grouped as parallel lines of round particles in an hexagonal packaging of spheroids forming small or large crystals. The individual particles have an external diameter of 36-37 nm and a wall of 5-6 nm thick, which surround a cavity of lower electron density. As identical crystals were also observed in normal tissues of T. solium and of T. crassiceps, it is suggested that both species of cysticerci are normal carriers of a similar species of virus. The possible biological implications of this condition are discussed.     

Hemolysis of rabbit erythrocytes in the presence of copper ions

The hemolysis of red blood cells (RBC) induced by Cu(II) is modified by ceruloplasmin (Cp) and albumin. The time course of hemolysis for rabbit RBC by Cu(II) consisted of two parts, an induction period followed by a catastrophic lysis period. The induction period decreased and the lysis rate increased with increasing Cu(II) concentration. Cp or albumin, modified Cu(II) induced hemolysis, by increasing the duration of the induction period and decreasing the overall rate of hemolysis of RBC. The catastrophic lysis period coincided with a sharp increase in the formation of metHb within the cell and in a rapid uptake of Cu(II). The presence of Cp led to an increase in the induction period prior to the rapid increase in metHb formation and in Cu(II) uptake. Porcine Cp was prepared with either two or three nonprosthetic copper binding sites (sites where Cu(II) is easily removed by passing over Chelex-100). Cp with three nonprosthetic binding sites gave more protection than Cp with two. Likewise, albumin can be prepared with three and five nonprosthetic copper binding sites. The albumin with five sites gave more protection than the albumin with three sites.     

Regulated copper uptake in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in response to copper availability.

A saturable and temperature-dependent copper uptake pathway has been identified in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The uptake system has a high affinity for copper ions (Km approximately 0.2 microM) and is more active in cells that are adapted to copper deficiency than to cells grown in a medium containing physiological (submicromolar to micromolar) copper ion concentrations. The maximum velocity of copper uptake by copper-deficient cells (169 pmol h-1 10(6) cells-1 or 62 ng min-1 mg-1 chlorophyll) is up to 20-fold greater than that of fully copper-supplemented cells, and the Km (approximately 2 x 10(2) nM) is unaffected. Thus, the same uptake system appears to operate in both copper-replete and copper-deficient cells, but its expression or activity must be induced under copper-deficient conditions. A cupric reductase activity is also increased in copper-deficient compared with copper-sufficient cells. The physiological characteristics of the regulation of this cupric reductase are compatible with its involvement in the uptake pathway. Despite the operation of the uptake pathway under both copper-replete and copper-deficient conditions, C. reinhardtii cells maintained in fully copper-supplemented cells do not accumulate copper in excess of their metabolic need. These results provide evidence for a homeostatic mechanism for copper metabolism in C. reinhardtii.     

Population genetics and phylogenetics of DNA sequence variation at multiple loci within the Drosophila melanogaster species complex

Two regions of the genome, a 1-kbp portion of the zeste locus and a 1.1- kbp portion of the yolk protein 2 locus, were sequenced in six individuals from each of four species: Drosophila melanogaster, D. simulans, D. mauritiana, and D. sechellia. The species and strains were the same as those of a previous study of a 1.9-kbp region of the period locus. No evidence was found for recent balancing or directional selection or for the accumulation of selected differences between species. Yolk protein 2 has a high level of amino acid replacement variation and a low level of synonymous variation, while zeste has the opposite pattern. This contrast is consistent with information on gene function and patterns of codon bias. Polymorphism levels are consistent with a ranking of effective population sizes, from low to high, in the following order: D. sechellia, D. melanogaster, D.mauritiana, and D. simulans. The apparent species relationships are very similar to those suggested by the period locus study. In particular, D. simulans appears to be a large population that is still segregating variation that arose before the separation of D. mauritiana and D. sechellia. It is estimated that the separation of ancestral D. melanogaster from the other species occurred 2.5-3.4 Mya. The separations of D. sechellia and D. mauritiana from ancestral D. simulans appear to have occurred 0.58- 0.86 Mya, with D. mauritiana having diverged from ancestral D. simulans 0.1 Myr more recently than D. sechellia.      

Heavy Metal-Activated Synthesis of Peptides in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

In this study, we have addressed the capacity of the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii to produce metal-binding peptides in response to stress induced by the heavy metals Cd²⁺, Hg²⁺, and Ag⁺. Cells cultured in the presence of sublethal concentrations of Cd²⁺ synthesized and accumulated oligopeptides consisting solely of glutamic acid, cysteine, and glycine in an average ratio of 3:3:1. Cadmium-induced peptides were isolated in their native form as higher molecular weight peptide-metal complexes with an apparent molecular weight of approximately 6.5 × 10³. The isolated complex bound cadmium (as evidenced by absorption spectroscopy) and sequestered (with a stoichiometry of 0.7 moles of cadmium per mole of cysteine) up to 70% of the total cadmium found in extracts of cadmium-treated cells. In Hg²⁺-treated cells, the principal thiol-containing compound induced by Hg²⁺ ions was glutathione. It is possible that glutathione functions in plant cells (as it does in animal cells) to detoxify heavy metals. Cells treated with Ag⁺ ions also synthesized a sulfur-containing component with a charge to mass ratio similar to Cd²⁺-induced peptides. But, in contrast to the results obtained using Cd²⁺ as an inducer, these molecules did not accumulate to significant levels in Ag⁺-treated cells. The presence of physiological concentrations of Cu²⁺ in the growth medium blocked the synthesis of the Ag⁺-inducible component(s) and rendered cells resistant to the toxic effects of Ag⁺, suggesting competition between Cu²⁺ and Ag⁺ ions, possibly at the level of metal uptake.