Benzoate fermentation by the anaerobic bacterium Syntrophus aciditrophicus in the absence of hydrogen-using microorganisms.

The anaerobic bacterium Syntrophus aciditrophicus metabolized benzoate in pure culture in the absence of hydrogen-utilizing partners or terminal electron acceptors. The pure culture of S. aciditrophicus produced approximately 0.5 mol of cyclohexane carboxylate and 1.5 mol of acetate per mol of benzoate, while a coculture of S. aciditrophicus with the hydrogen-using methanogen Methanospirillum hungatei produced 3 mol of acetate and 0.75 mol of methane per mol of benzoate. The growth yield of the S. aciditrophicus pure culture was 6.9 g (dry weight) per mol of benzoate metabolized, whereas the growth yield of the S. aciditrophicus-M. hungatei coculture was 11.8 g (dry weight) per mol of benzoate. Cyclohexane carboxylate was metabolized by S. aciditrophicus only in a coculture with a hydrogen user and was not metabolized by S. aciditrophicus pure cultures. Cyclohex-1-ene carboxylate was incompletely degraded by S. aciditrophicus pure cultures until a free energy change (DeltaG') of -9.2 kJ/mol was reached (-4.7 kJ/mol for the hydrogen-producing reaction). Cyclohex-1-ene carboxylate, pimelate, and glutarate transiently accumulated at micromolar levels during growth of an S. aciditrophicus pure culture with benzoate. High hydrogen (10.1 kPa) and acetate (60 mM) levels inhibited benzoate metabolism by S. aciditrophicus pure cultures. These results suggest that benzoate fermentation by S. aciditrophicus in the absence of hydrogen users proceeds via a dismutation reaction in which the reducing equivalents produced during oxidation of one benzoate molecule to acetate and carbon dioxide are used to reduce another benzoate molecule to cyclohexane carboxylate, which is not metabolized further. Benzoate fermentation to acetate, CO(2), and cyclohexane carboxylate is thermodynamically favorable and can proceed at free energy values more positive than -20 kJ/mol, the postulated minimum free energy value for substrate metabolism.     

Formate auxotroph of Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum Marburg.

A formate-requiring auxotroph of Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum Marburg was isolated after hydroxylamine mutagenesis and bacitracin selection. The requirement for formate is unique and specific; combined pools of other volatile fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, and nitrogen bases did not substitute for formate. Compared with those of the wild type, cell extracts of the formate auxotroph were deficient in formate dehydrogenase activity, but cells of all of the strains examined catalyzed a formate-carbon dioxide exchange activity. All of the strains examined took up a small amount (200 to 260 mumol/liter) of formate (3 mM) added to medium. The results of the study of this novel auxotroph indicate a role for formate in biosynthetic reactions in this methanogen. Moreover, because methanogenesis from H2-CO2 is not impaired in the mutant, free formate is not an intermediate in the reduction of CO2 to CH4.     

Anaerobic Degradation of Lactate by Syntrophic Associations of Methanosarcina barkeri and Desulfovibrio Species and Effect of H2 on Acetate Degradation

When grown in the absence of added sulfate, cocultures of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans or Desulfovibrio vulgaris with Methanobrevibacter smithii (Methanobacterium ruminantium), which uses H₂ and CO₂ for methanogenesis, degraded lactate, with the production of acetate and CH₄. When D. desulfuricans or D. vulgaris was grown in the absence of added sulfate in coculture with Methanosarcina barkeri (type strain), which uses both H₂-CO₂ and acetate for methanogenesis, lactate was stoichiometrically degraded to CH₄ and presumably to CO₂. During the first 12 days of incubation of the D. desulfuricans-M. barkeri coculture, lactate was completely degraded, with almost stoichiometric production of acetate and CH₄. Later, acetate was degraded to CH₄ and presumably to CO₂. In experiments in which 20 mM acetate and 0 to 20 mM lactate were added to D. desulfuricans-M. barkeri cocultures, no detectable degradation of acetate occurred until the lactate was catabolized. The ultimate rate of acetate utilization for methanogenesis was greater for those cocultures receiving the highest levels of lactate. A small amount of H₂ was detected in cocultures which contained D. desulfuricans and M. barkeri until after all lactate was degraded. The addition of H₂, but not of lactate, to the growth medium inhibited acetate degradation by pure cultures of M. barkeri. Pure cultures of M. barkeri produced CH₄ from acetate at a rate equivalent to that observed for cocultures containing M. barkeri. Inocula of M. barkeri grown with H₂-CO₂ as the methanogenic substrate produced CH₄ from acetate at a rate equivalent to that observed for acetate-grown inocula when grown in a rumen fluid-vitamin-based medium but not when grown in a yeast extract-based medium. The results suggest that H₂ produced by the Desulfovibrio species during growth with lactate inhibited acetate degradation by M. barkeri.     

Development of cell surface saccharides on embryonic pancreatic cells

Using a battery of seven lectin-ferritin conjugates as probes for cell surface glycoconjugates, we have studied the pattern of plasmalemmal differentiation of cells in the embryonic rat pancreas from day 15 in utero to the early postpartum stage. Our results indicate that differentiation of plasmalemmal glycoconjugates on acinar, endocrine, and centroacinar cells is temporally correlated with development and is unique for each cell type, as indicated by lectin-ferritin binding. Specifically, (a) expression of adult cell surface saccharide phenotype can be detected on presumptive acinar cells as early as 15 d in utero, as indicated by soybean agglutinin binding, and precedes development of intracellular organelles characteristic of mature acinar cells; (b) maturation of the plasmalemma of acinar cells is reached after intracellular cytodifferentiation is completed, as indicated by appearance of Con A and fucoselectin binding sites only at day 19 of development; conversely, maturation of the endocrine cell plasmalemma is accompanied by "loss" (masking) of ricinus communis II agglutinin receptors; and (c) binding sites for fucose lectins and for soybean agglutinin are absent on endocrine and centroacinar cells at all stages examined. We conclude that acinar, centroacinar, and endocrine cells develop from a common progenitor cell(s) whose plasmalemmal carbohydrate composition resembles most closely that of the adult centroacinar cell. Finally, appearance of acinar lumina beginning at approximately 17 d in utero is accompanied by differenetiation of apical and basolateral plasmalemmal domains of epithelial cells, as indicated by enhanced binding of several lectin-ferritin conjugates to the apical plasmalemmal, a pattern that persists from this stage through adult life.     

Assessing changes in genomic divergence following a century of human‐mediated secondary contact among wild and captive‐bred ducks

Along with manipulating habitat, the direct release of domesticated individuals into the wild is a practice used worldwide to augment wildlife populations. We test between possible outcomes of human‐mediated secondary contact using genomic techniques at both historical and contemporary timescales for two iconic duck species. First, we sequence several thousand ddRAD‐seq loci for contemporary mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) throughout North America and two domestic mallard types (i.e., known game‐farm mallards and feral Khaki Campbell's). We show that North American mallards may well be becoming a hybrid swarm due to interbreeding with domesticated game‐farm mallards released for hunting. Next, to attain a historical perspective, we applied a bait‐capture array targeting thousands of loci in century‐old (1842–1915) and contemporary (2009–2010) mallard and American black duck (Anas rubripes) specimens. We conclude that American black ducks and mallards have always been closely related, with a divergence time of ~600,000 years before present, and likely evolved through prolonged isolation followed by limited bouts of gene flow (i.e., secondary contact). They continue to maintain genetic separation, a finding that overturns decades of prior research and speculation suggesting the genetic extinction of the American black duck due to contemporary interbreeding with mallards. Thus, despite having high rates of hybridization, actual gene flow is limited between mallards and American black ducks. Conversely, our historical and contemporary data confirm that the intensive stocking of game‐farm mallards during the last ~100 years has fundamentally changed the genetic integrity of North America's wild mallard population, especially in the east. It thus becomes of great interest to ask whether the iconic North American mallard is declining in the wild due to introgression of maladaptive traits from domesticated forms. Moreover, we hypothesize that differential gene flow from domestic game‐farm mallards into the wild mallard population may explain the overall temporal increase in differentiation between wild black ducks and mallards, as well as the uncoupling of genetic diversity and effective population size estimates across time in our results. Finally, our findings highlight how genomic methods can recover complex population histories by capturing DNA preserved in traditional museum specimens.     

Age-Specific Mortality During the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: Unravelling the Mystery of High Young Adult Mortality

The worldwide spread of a novel influenza A (H1N1) virus in 2009 showed that influenza remains a significant health threat, even for individuals in the prime of life. This paper focuses on the unusually high young adult mortality observed during the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918. Using historical records from Canada and the U.S., we report a peak of mortality at the exact age of 28 during the pandemic and argue that this increased mortality resulted from an early life exposure to influenza during the previous Russian flu pandemic of 1889–90. We posit that in specific instances, development of immunological memory to an influenza virus strain in early life may lead to a dysregulated immune response to antigenically novel strains encountered in later life, thereby increasing the risk of death. Exposure during critical periods of development could also create holes in the T cell repertoire and impair fetal maturation in general, thereby increasing mortality from infectious diseases later in life. Knowledge of the age-pattern of susceptibility to mortality from influenza could improve crisis management during future influenza pandemics.

“The war is over – and I must go” Egon Schiele, 1890–1918.

     

Syntrophus aciditrophicus uses the same enzymes in a reversible manner to degrade and synthesize aromatic and alicyclic acids

Syntrophy is essential for the efficient conversion of organic carbon to methane in natural and constructed environments, but little is known about the enzymes involved in syntrophic carbon and electron flow. Syntrophus aciditrophicus strain SB syntrophically degrades benzoate and cyclohexane-1-carboxylate and catalyses the novel synthesis of benzoate and cyclohexane-1-carboxylate from crotonate. We used proteomic, biochemical and metabolomic approaches to determine what enzymes are used for fatty, aromatic and alicyclic acid degradation versus for benzoate and cyclohexane-1-carboxylate synthesis. Enzymes involved in the metabolism of cyclohex-1,5-diene carboxyl-CoA to acetyl-CoA were in high abundance in S. aciditrophicus cells grown in pure culture on crotonate and in coculture with Methanospirillum hungatei on crotonate, benzoate or cyclohexane-1-carboxylate. Incorporation of ¹³C-atoms from 1-[¹³C]-acetate into crotonate, benzoate and cyclohexane-1-carboxylate during growth on these different substrates showed that the pathways are reversible. A protein conduit for syntrophic reverse electron transfer from acyl-CoA intermediates to formate was detected. Ligases and membrane-bound pyrophosphatases make pyrophosphate needed for the synthesis of ATP by an acetyl-CoA synthetase. Syntrophus aciditrophicus, thus, uses a core set of enzymes that operates close to thermodynamic equilibrium to conserve energy in a novel and highly efficient manner.