Purification and Characterization of Cystathionine (gamma)-Lyase from Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris SK11: Possible Role in Flavor Compound Formation during Cheese Maturation

A cystathionine (gamma)-lyase (EC 4.4.1.1) ((gamma)-CTL) was purified to homogeneity from a crude cell extract of Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris SK11 by a procedure including anion-exchange chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography, and gel filtration chromatography. The activity of SK11 (gamma)-CTL is pyridoxal-5(prm1)-phosphate dependent, and the enzyme catalyzes the (alpha),(gamma)-elimination reaction of L-cystathionine to produce L-cysteine, (alpha)-ketobutyrate, and ammonia. The native enzyme has a molecular mass of approximately 120 to 200 kDa and apparently consists of at least six identical subunits of 20 kDa. In this respect, the SK11 enzyme clearly differs from other bacterial cystathionine lyases, which are all tetrameric proteins with identical subunits of approximately 40 kDa. In addition, the specific activity of purified SK11 (gamma)-CTL toward L-cystathionine is relatively low compared with those reported for other bacterial cystathionine lyases. The SK11 enzyme shows a broad substrate specificity. In the case of L-methionine, the action of SK11 (gamma)-CTL results in the formation of methanethiol, a volatile sulfur compound known to be required in flavor development in cheddar cheese. The (alpha),(beta)-elimination reaction of L-cysteine is also efficiently catalyzed by the enzyme, resulting in the formation of hydrogen sulfide. Although the conditions are far from optimal, cystathionine (gamma)-lyase is still active under cheddar cheese-ripening conditions, namely, pH 5.0 to 5.4 and 5% (wt/vol) NaCl. The possible role of the enzyme in cheese flavor development is discussed.     

Resistance against Industrial Bacteriophages Conferred on Lactococci by Plasmid pAJ1106 and Related Plasmids

Plasmid pAJ1106 and its deletion derivative, plasmid pAJ2074, conferred lactose-fermenting ability (Lac) and bacteriophage resistance (Hsp) at 30°C to Lac⁻ proteinase (Prt)-negative Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis recipient strains. An additional plasmid, pAJ331, isolated from the original source strain of pAJ1106, retained Hsp and conjugative ability without Lac. pAJ331 was conjugally transferred to two L. lactis subsp. lactis and one L. lactis subsp. cremoris starter strains. The transconjugants from such crosses acquired resistance to the phages which propagated on the parent recipient strains. Of 10 transconjugant strains carrying pAJ1106 or one of the related plasmids, 8 remained insensitive to phages through five activity test cycles in which cultures were exposed to a large number of industrial phages at incubation temperatures used in lactic casein manufacture. Three of ten strains remained phage insensitive through five cycles of a cheesemaking activity test in which cultures were exposed to approximately 80 different phages through cheesemaking temperatures. Three phages which propagated on transconjugant strains during cheesemaking activity tests were studied in detail. Two were similar (prolate) in morphology and by DNA homology to phages which were shown to be sensitive to the plasmid-encoded phage resistance mechanism. The third phage was a long-tailed, small isometric phage of a type rarely found in New Zealand cheese wheys. The phage resistance mechanism was partially inactivated in most strains at 37°C.     

Use of spectral analysis to test hypotheses on the origin of pinnipeds

The evolutionary origin of the pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses) is still uncertain. Most authors support a hypothesis of a monophyletic origin of the pinnipeds from a caniform carnivore. A minority view suggests a diphyletic origin with true seals being related to the mustelids (otters and ferrets). The phylogenetic relationships of the walrus to other pinniped and carnivore families are also still particularly problematic. Here we examined the relative support for mono- and diphyletic hypotheses using DNA sequence data from the mitochondrial small subunit (12S) rRNA and cytochrome b genes. We first analyzed a small group of taxa representing the three pinniped families (Phocidae, Otariidae, and Odobenidae) and caniform carnivore families thought to be related to them. We inferred phylogenetic reconstructions from DNA sequence data using standard parsimony and neighbor-joining algorithms for phylogenetic inference as well as a new method called spectral analysis (Hendy and Penny) in which phylogenetic information is displayed independently of any selected tree. We identified and compensated for potential sources of error known to lead to selection of incorrect phylogenetic trees. These include sampling error, unequal evolutionary rates on lineages, unequal nucleotide composition among lineages, unequal rates of change at different sites, and inappropriate tree selection criteria. To correct for these errors, we performed additional transformations of the observed substitution patterns in the sequence data, applied more stringent structural constraints to the analyses, and included several additional taxa to help resolve long, unbranched lineages in the tree. We find that there is strong support for a monophyletic origin of the pinnipeds from within the caniform carnivores, close to the bear/raccoon/panda radiation. Evidence for a diphyletic origin was very weak and can be partially attributed to unequal nucleotide compositions among the taxa analyzed. Subsequently, there is slightly more evidence for grouping the walrus with the eared seals versus the true seals. A more conservative interpretation, however, is that the walrus is an early, but not the first, independent divergence from the common pinniped ancestor.      

Identification and characterization of a cystathionine beta/gamma-lyase from Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris MG1363

This paper describes the nucleotide sequence of a gene encoding cystathionine beta/gamma-lyase from Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris MG1363, its overexpression in Escherichia coli and some functional characteristics of the purified recombinant protein.     

Infants' exploration of scented toys: effects of prior experiences

To evaluate breastfed infants' responses to scented objects, we videotapedthe facial and bodily reactions of sixty-three infants as they explored, insuccession, three toys that were identical in appearance but different intheir characteristic odor. Two of the toys were scented with odorantspreviously shown to be transmitted to human milk, one with ethanol and theother with vanilla, whereas the third toy was unscented. Each videotape wassubjected to frame-by-frame analysis to measure a variety of behaviors thatare considered either to be exploratory in nature in that they lead toperceptual information about the object or to reflect the infants' hedonicreaction. Analyses of these behaviors revealed that the infants looked moreand vocalized less in the presence of the vanilla-scented toy and spentless time manipulating the ethanol-scented toy when compared with theunscented toy. Moreover, differential exposure to the odors of ethanol andvanilla, as indicated by differential consumption of alcohol by a parent oruse of vanilla-scented product by the mother, was related to differentialresponses to these odors. These findings suggest that human infants areable to detect and retain information about the chemical features of theirenvironment.