Microorganisms as efficient biosystem for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles: current scenario and future possibilities

Nanoparticles, the elementary structures of nanotechnology, are important materials for fundamental studies and variety of applications. The different sizes and shapes of these materials exhibit unique physical and chemical properties than their bulk materials. There is a great interest in obtaining well-dispersed, ultrafine, and uniform nanoparticles to delineate and utilize their distinct properties. Nanoparticle synthesis can be achieved through a wide range of materials utilizing a number of methods including physical, chemical, and biological processes with various precursors from liquids and solids. There is a growing need to prepare environmentally friendly nanoparticles that do not produce toxic wastes in their process synthesis protocol. This kind of synthesis can be achieved by green environment benign processes, which happen to be mostly of a biological nature. Microorganisms are one of the most attractive and simple sources for the synthesis of different types of nanoparticles. This review is an attempt to provide the up-to-date information on current status of nanoparticle synthesis by different types of microorganisms such as fungi, yeast, bacteria, cyanobacteria, actinomycete, and algae. The probable biosynthesis mechanism and conditions for size/shape control are described. Various applications of microbially synthesized nanoparticles are summarized. They include antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, larvicidal, medical imaging, biosensor, and catalytic applications. Finally, limitations and future prospects for specific research are discussed.     

Improved degradation of lignocellulosic biomass pretreated by Fenton-like reaction using Fe<Subscript>3</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript> magnetic nanoparticles

The ability of Fe₃O₄ Fenton-like reaction to produce glucose from lignocellulosic biomass was investigated. Fe₃O₄ magnetite nanoparticles were chemically synthesized from iron salts (a mixture of 1 M FeCl₂ and 2M FeCl₃) using an ammonia solution (30% NH₄OH). The synthesized Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles were further characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Reed stems and rice straw biomasses pretreated with optimized Fenton-like reagents (Fe₃O₄ and H₂O₂) increased glucose production by 177 and 87%, respectively, compared to the control without the catalysts.     

Mercury sensing and toxicity studies of novel latex fabricated silver nanoparticles

Safe and eco-friendly alternatives to currently used hazardous chemico-physical methods of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) synthesis are need of time. Rapid, low cost, selective detection of toxic metals in environmental sample is important to take safety action. Toxicity assessment of engineered AgNPs is essential to avoid its side effects on human and non-target organisms. In the present study, biologically active latex from Euphorbia heterophylla (Poinsettia) was utilized for synthesis of AgNPs. AgNPs was of spherical shape and narrow size range (20–50 nm). Occurrence of elemental silver and crystalline nature of AgNPs was analyzed. Role of latex metabolites in reduction and stabilization of AgNPs was analyzed by FT-IR, protein coagulation test and phytochemical analysis. Latex-synthesized AgNPs showed potential in selective and sensitive detection of toxic mercury ions (Hg²⁺) with limit of detection around 100 ppb. Addition of Hg²⁺ showed marked deviation in color and surface plasmon resonance spectra of AgNPs. Toxicity studies on aquatic non-target species Daphnia magna showed that latex-synthesized AgNPs (20.66 ± 1.52 % immobilization) were comparatively very less toxic than chemically synthesized AgNPs (51.66 ± 1.52 % immobilization). Similarly, comparative toxicity study on human red blood cells showed lower hemolysis (4.46 ± 0.01 %) by latex-synthesized AgNPs as compared to chemically synthesized AgNPs causing 6.14 ± 0.01 % hemolysis.     

Discovery of +(2-{4-[2-(5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-1,8-naphthyridin-2-yl)ethoxy]phenyl}-cyclopropyl)acetic acid as potent and selective alphavbeta3 inhibitor: design, synthesis, and optimization

The integrin alpha(v)beta(3) is expressed in a number of cell types and is thought to play a major role in several pathological conditions. Various small molecules that inhibit the integrin have been shown to suppress tumor growth and retinal angiogenesis. The tripeptide Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD), a common binding motif in several ligands that bind to alpha(v)beta(3), has been depeptidized and optimized in our efforts toward discovering a small molecule inhibitor. We recently disclosed the synthesis and biological activity of several small molecules that did not contain any peptide bond and mimic the tripeptide RGD. The phenethyl group in one of the lead compounds was successfully replaced with a cyclopropyl moiety. The new lead compound was optimized for potency, selectivity, and for its ADME properties. We describe herein the discovery, synthesis, and optimization of cyclopropyl containing analogs that are potent and selective inhibitors of alpha(v)beta(3).     

A Laboratory Case Study of Efficient Polyhydoxyalkonates Production by Bacillus cereus,a Contaminant in Saccharophagus degradans ATCC 43961 in Minimal Sea Salt Media

A contaminating bacterium growing along with the stock culture of Saccharophagus degradans ATCC 43961 (Sde 2-40) on marine agar plate was isolated and investigated for its ability to produce polyhydoxyalkonates (PHA). Preliminary screening by Sudan black B and Nile blue A staining indicated positive characteristic of the isolate to produce PHA. The isolate was able to grow and produce PHA in minimal sea salt medium broth. PHA quantification studies with gas chromatographic analyses of the dry cells derived from culture broths revealed accumulation of PHA in bacterial cells. PHA production started after 20 h and increased with cell growth and attained maximum values of 61 % of dry cell weight at 70 h of cultivation. After 70 h, a slight decrease in the level of PHA content was observed. The nature/type of PHA was found to be poly(3-hydroxybutyraye) by Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy. Microbiological and 16S rRNA gene sequencing analyses suggested that the PHA producing bacterial isolate belongs to Bacillus genera and shows 100 % nucleotide sequence similarity with Bacillus cereus species in GenBank. This study is a first report for ability of Bacillus species to grow in marine sea salt media and produce PHA. The media used for the polymer production was novel in the context of the genus Bacillus and the production of PHA was three-fold higher than Sde 2-40 using same growth medium. This study shows that the contaminant bacteria once properly investigated can be used for advantageous characteristic of metabolites production in place of original cultures.     

Transformation of aromatic dyes using green synthesized silver nanoparticles

Nowadays, increasing use of nanoproducts in area of human and environmental applications raises concern about safety aspects of nanoparticles synthesized using traditional physicochemical methods. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) synthesis at ambient parameters using latex of medicinally important plant Jatropha gossypifolia (J. gossypifolia) is reported in the present study. Potential of AgNPs in degradation of methylene blue and eosin B was also evaluated. Rapid formation of stable AgNPs was analyzed by visual color change from colorless to yellow-red after addition of latex in AgNO₃ solution and by characteristic surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak at 430 nm in UV–Vis spectroscopy. FT-IR analysis, protein coagulation test showed capping of proteins, flavonoids, terpenoids and polyphenols of latex on surface of AgNPs. FE-SEM, HR-TEM analysis revealed spherical shape of AgNPs. Narrow size range of AgNPs (5–40 nm) observed in HR-TEM analysis. EDS analysis confirms the presence of elemental silver while XRD revealed crystalline nature of AgNPs. Zeta potential of ?21.4 mV indicates high stability of AgNPs. Effects of different parameters (pH, temperature, incubation time) on nanosynthesis were studied in the present study. Dye reduction studies were performed using UV–Vis spectroscopy, TLC, FT-IR and HPLC analysis showing decreased absorbance maxima of both dyes with respect to time, change in R _f values, changes in wave number, transmittance, and retention time of dyes after AgNPs addition. The rate constant for methylene blue and eosin B reduction by AgNPs was found to be 0.062 and 0.022 min^?1.     

An efficient,simple and high throughput protocol for cotton genomic DNA isolation

Cotton is a stubborn plant for genomic DNA isolation due to its high-level of polyphenolics, polysaccharides and secondary metabolites. Genomics and molecular biology studies require high quality and large quantity of DNA. We have standardized an efficient miniprep protocol for cotton genomic DNA isolation, which not only provides higher yield from 800 to 1400 µg of DNA from 200 to 300 mg of fresh leaf tissue but also provide excellent purity. The DNA is amenable to all elementary enzymatic preparations, PCR techniques, Southern blotting and to high end genomic studies. The technique does not require liquid nitrogen, needs small amount of sample, less time, fewer chemicals and one can process up to 100 samples per day. The genomic DNA extracted was good for transgenic event characterization and marker assisted selection.     

Genetic Dissection of Grain Size and Grain Number Trade-Offs in CIMMYT Wheat Germplasm

Grain weight (GW) and number per unit area of land (GN) are the primary components of grain yield in wheat. In segregating populations both yield components often show a negative correlation among themselves. Here we use a recombinant doubled haploid population of 105 individuals developed from the CIMMYT varieties Weebill and Bacanora to understand the relative contribution of these components to grain yield and their interaction with each other. Weebill was chosen for its high GW and Bacanora for high GN. The population was phenotyped in Mexico, Argentina, Chile and the UK. Two loci influencing grain yield were indicated on 1B and 7B after QTL analysis. Weebill contributed the increasing alleles. The 1B effect, which is probably caused by to the 1BL.1RS rye introgression in Bacanora, was a result of increased GN, whereas, the 7B QTL controls GW. We concluded that increased in GW from Weebill 7B allele is not accompanied by a significant reduction in grain number. The extent of the GW and GN trade-off is reduced. This makes this locus an attractive target for marker assisted selection to develop high yielding bold grain varieties like Weebill. AMMI analysis was used to show that the 7B Weebill allele appears to contribute to yield stability.     

Determination of Wolbachia diversity in butterflies from Western Ghats, India, by a multigene approach

Members of the genus Wolbachia are intracellular bacteria that are widespread in arthropods and establish diverse symbiotic associations with their hosts, ranging from mutualism to parasitism. Here we present the first detailed analyses of Wolbachia in butterflies from India with screening of 56 species. Twenty-nine species (52%) representing five families were positive for Wolbachia. This is the first report of Wolbachia infection in 27 of the 29 species; the other two were reported previously. This study also provides the first evidence of infection in the family Papilionidae. A striking diversity was observed among Wolbachia strains in butterfly hosts based on five multilocus sequence typing (MLST) genes, with 15 different sequence types (STs). Thirteen STs are new to the MLST database, whereas ST41 and ST125 were reported earlier. Some of the same host species from this study carried distinctly different Wolbachia strains, whereas the same or different butterfly hosts also harbored closely related Wolbachia strains. Butterfly-associated STs in the Indian sample originated by recombination and point mutation, further supporting the role of both processes in generating Wolbachia diversity. Recombination was detected only among the STs in this study and not in those from the MLST database. Most of the strains were remarkably similar in their wsp genotype, despite divergence in MLST. Only two wsp alleles were found among 25 individuals with complete hypervariable region (HVR) peptide profiles. Although both wsp and MLST show variability, MLST gives better separation between the strains. Completely different STs were characterized for the individuals sharing the same wsp alleles.