Biochemical assay-based selectivity profiling of clinically relevant kinase inhibitors on mutant forms of EGF receptor

Gefitinib and erlotinib are potent EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (potentially) useful for the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Clinical responses, however, in NSCLC patients have been linked to the presence of certain activating mutations of EGFR. We used an ELISA-based biochemical assay to confirm the selective inhibitory efficacy of gefitinib and erlotinib on the activated mutant receptor. Our results are in line with the clinical observations providing evidence for the predictive power of the kinase assay. Four additional compounds were also investigated: CI-1033 and EKB-569 had dramatic inhibitory effects on all EGFR forms, whereas PD153035 and AG1478 were active on wild-type and activating mutant protein. In docking simulations with wild-type EGFR, our inhibitory data are in good agreement with the binding scores. These data confirm that anilinoquinazolines are good starting structures for the next generation of selective drugs against mutant EGFR, whereas CI-1033 and EKB-569 may represent advances for patients with both wild-type and anilinoquinazoline-resistant mutant tumors.     

Functional Organization of the Inverted Repeats of IS30

The mobile element IS30 has 26-bp imperfect terminal inverted repeats (IRs) that are indispensable for transposition. We have analyzed the effects of IR mutations on both major transposition steps, the circle formation and integration of the abutted ends, characteristic for IS30. Several mutants show strikingly different phenotypes if the mutations are present at one or both ends and differentially influence the transposition steps. The two IRs are equivalent in the recombination reactions and contain several functional regions. We have determined that positions 20 to 26 are responsible for binding of the N-terminal domain of the transposase and the formation of a correct 2-bp spacer between the abutted ends. However, integration is efficient without this region, suggesting that a second binding site for the transposase may exist, possibly within the region from 4 to 11 bp. Several mutations at this part of the IRs, which are highly conserved in the IS30 family, considerably affected both major transposition steps. In addition, positions 16 and 17 seem to be responsible for distinguishing the IRs of related insertion sequences by providing specificity for the transposase to recognize its cognate ends. Finally, we show both in vivo and in vitro that position 3 has a determining role in the donor function of the ends, especially in DNA cleavage adjacent to the IRs. Taken together, the present work provides evidence for a more complex organization of the IS30 IRs than was previously suggested.Mobile DNA elements have been described in most organisms and represent a considerable proportion of their genetic material. These elements play an important role in the evolution of the host genome due to their capacities to generate DNA rearrangements and influence the expression of neighboring genes. Their ability to form compound transposons contributes to the sequestering and dispersion of accessory genes, such as those specifying resistance to antibiotics, virulence, and various catabolic activities. The simplest mobile elements are the bacterial insertion sequences (ISs), which typically harbor one or two open reading frames (ORF) coding for the transposase (Tpase). More than 2,400 ISs have been described and classified into families (IS Finder, http://www-is.biotoul.fr/) on the basis of similarities in their genetic organization and Tpases (30). The terminal inverted repeats (IRs) are essential for the transposition of most ISs. The IRs, together with the Tpase, form a complex where the cleavage and strand transfer reactions occur. The IRs generally contain two functional modules: the internal region serves as the binding site of Tpase, while the terminal part is required for DNA cleavage and the strand transfer process (2). Besides these principal cis-acting elements, some ISs carry additional regulatory DNA sequences in the IRs or in the subterminal regions (18).The IS30 family currently comprises more than 80 elements distributed throughout the Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and the Archaea (IS Finder, http://www-is.biotoul.fr). IS30 (1, 5), the founding element of the family, is 1,221 bp long and has 26-bp imperfect IRs (the left end of the IR [IRL] and the right end of the IR [IRR]; Fig. ​Fig.1A)1A) and one ORF with a coding capacity for a 44.3-kDa Tpase. The element has a preference for two distinct types of target sequences: the natural hot spots (HSs), characterized by a 24-bp symmetric consensus (23), and the IRs of the element itself (21, 22). Potential helix-turn-helix motifs (HTH) responsible for HS and IR targeting are located in the N-terminal region of the Tpase (19). While the first motif, HTH1, is required only for transposition into the HS sequences, the conserved H-HTH2 motif is essential for both IR and HS targeting (15, 19).Open in a separate windowFIG. 1.Transposition assays for comparing the IS30-based transposons composed of simple IRs. (A) Comparison of the IS30 IR sequences. Dots indicate matching bases. (B) Schematic representation of the intermolecular transposition pathway. The graph shows the two major steps characteristic for IS30 transposition (steps 1 and 2). The transposon donor plasmid and its derivative, the circular transposon (thin line), carry the 26-bp IRs of IS30 (boxes with open and filled triangles representing IRL and IRR, respectively). The Cm^r gene flanking the transposon in the donor plasmid is shown as a gray box. The target plasmid (dotted line) carries the GOHS hot spot sequence (cross-hatched box). (C) Transposition frequencies of IS30-based transposons with different combinations of the IRs. The graph shows the overall frequency of transposition into the hot spot (steps 1 and 2) and the frequency of the major steps assayed separately. Data were obtained from at least three parallel experiments.IS30 transposition occurs through two major steps (14, 24) (Fig. ​(Fig.1B).1B). The first is the formation of an active intermediate by joining of the IRs. This process involves the Tpase-catalyzed cleavage of one strand at the 3′ IS end, which then attacks the same strand 2 bp outside the other IR. This strand transfer generates a single-strand bridge between the ends and leads to a figure-eight structure (33). This active transposition intermediate carrying the joined IRs probably proceeds via replicative resolution, as described for IS911 (11, 25) and IS2 (16). The resolution can lead to the circularization of a single IS or to the formation of a head-to-tail repeat of two IS30 copies. In the second step of transposition, the active forms interact with the target DNA, resulting in the known transposition products: simple insertion, deletion, inversion, or replicon fusion (14, 24).In this work, we describe the modularity of the IR ends of IS30 by analyzing several mutants. According to our results, the IS30 IRs can be divided into functional regions that are differently involved in the main transposition steps. We show that positions 2 and 3 play a pivotal role in cleavage of the ends and, consequently, in their donor function. While the terminal part (1 to 17 bp) of the IRs is indispensable for both major steps, the internal region, i.e., the binding site for the N-terminal part of Tpase (20 to 26 bp), appears to be required only for the junction formation. Although the exact role of the terminal part of IRs is less clear, several mutations in this region considerably affected both the junction formation and integration. The fact that the internal IR region is not involved in the integration suggests that the Tpase binds to other sequences during this reaction.     

Spiropiperidine CCR5 antagonists

A novel series of CCR5 antagonists has been identified, utilizing leads from high-throughput screening which were further modified based on insights from competitor molecules. Lead optimization was pursued by balancing opposing trends of metabolic stability and potency. Selective and potent analogs with good pharmacokinetic properties were successfully developed.     

MOESIN crosslinks actin and cell membrane in Drosophila oocytes and is required for OSKAR anchoring

In Drosophila, development of the embryonic germ cells depends on posterior transport and site-specific translation of oskar (osk) mRNA and on interdependent anchoring of the osk mRNA and protein within the posterior subcortical region of the oocyte. Transport of the osk mRNA is mediated by microtubules, while anchoring of the osk gene products at the posterior pole of the oocyte is suggested to be microfilament dependent. To date, only a single actin binding protein (TropomyosinII) has been identified with a putative role in osk mRNA and protein anchoring. This communication demonstrates that mutations in the Drosophila moesin (Dmoe) gene that encodes another actin binding protein result in delocalization of osk mRNA and protein from the posterior subcortical region and, as a consequence, in failure of embryonic germ cell development. In Dmoe mutant oocytes, the subcortical actin network is detached from the cell membrane, while the polarized microtubule cytoskeleton is unaffected. In line with the earlier observations, colocalization of ectopic actin and OSK protein in Dmoe mutants suggests that the actin cytoskeleton anchors OSK protein to the subcortical cytoplasmic area of the Drosophila oocyte.     

Phosphorylation of protein phosphatase type-1 inhibitory proteins by integrin-linked kinase and cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinases

Protein phosphatases play key roles in cellular regulation and are subjected to control by protein inhibitors whose activity is in turn regulated by phosphorylation. Here we investigated the possible regulation of phosphorylation-dependent type-1 protein phosphatase (PP1) inhibitors, CPI-17, PHI-1, and KEPI, by various kinases. Protein kinases A (PKA) and G (PKG) phosphorylated CPI-17 at the inhibitory site (T38), but not PHI-1 (T57). Phosphorylated CPI-17 inhibited the activity of both the PP1 catalytic subunit (PP1c) and the myosin phosphatase holoenzyme (MPH) with IC(50) values of 1-8 nM. PKA predominantly phosphorylated a site distinct from the inhibitory T73 in KEPI, whereas PKG was ineffective. Integrin-linked kinase phosphorylated KEPI (T73) and this dramatically increased inhibition of PP1c (IC(50)=0.1 nM) and MPH (IC(50)=8 nM). These results suggest that the regulatory phosphorylation of CPI-17 and KEPI may involve distinct kinases and signaling pathways.