mTOR in programmed cell death and its therapeutic implications

Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), a highly conserved serine/threonine kinase, is involved in cellular metabolism, protein synthesis, and cell death. Programmed cell death (PCD) assists in eliminating aging, damaged, or neoplastic cells, and is indispensable for sustaining normal growth, fighting pathogenic microorganisms, and maintaining body homeostasis. mTOR has crucial functions in the intricate signaling pathway network of multiple forms of PCD. mTOR can inhibit autophagy, which is part of PCD regulation. Cell survival is affected by mTOR through autophagy to control reactive oxygen species production and the degradation of pertinent proteins. Additionally, mTOR can regulate PCD in an autophagy-independent manner by affecting the expression levels of related genes and phosphorylating proteins. Therefore, mTOR acts through both autophagy-dependent and -independent pathways to regulate PCD. It is conceivable that mTOR exerts bidirectional regulation of PCD, such as ferroptosis, according to the complexity of signaling pathway networks, but the underlying mechanisms have not been fully explained. This review summarizes the recent advances in understanding mTOR-mediated regulatory mechanisms in PCD. Rigorous investigations into PCD-related signaling pathways have provided prospective therapeutic targets that may be clinically beneficial for treating various diseases.     

Understanding the mechanistic regulation of ferroptosis in cancer: the gene matters

Ferroptosis has emerged as a crucial regulated cell death involved in a variety of physiological processes or pathological diseases, such as tumor suppression. Though initially being found from anticancer drug screening and considered not essential as apoptosis for growth and development, numerous studies have demonstrated that ferroptosis is tightly regulated by key genetic pathways and/or genes, including several tumor suppressors and oncogenes. In this review, we introduce the basic concepts of ferroptosis, characterized by the features of non-apoptotic, iron-dependent, and overwhelmed accumulation of lipid peroxides, and the underlying regulated circuits are considered to be pro-ferroptotic pathways. Then, we discuss several established lipid peroxidation defending systems within cells, including SLC7A11/GPX4, FSP1/CoQ, GCH1/BH4, and mitochondria DHODH/CoQ, all of which serve as anti-ferroptotic pathways to prevent ferroptosis. Moreover, we provide a comprehensive summary of the genetic regulation of ferroptosis via targeting the above-mentioned pro-ferroptotic or anti-ferroptotic pathways. The regulation of pro- and anti-ferroptotic pathways gives rise to more specific responses to the tumor cells in a context-dependent manner, highlighting the unceasing study and deeper understanding of mechanistic regulation of ferroptosis for the purpose of applying ferroptosis induction in cancer therapy.     

Ferroptosis in Cancer Progression: Role of Noncoding RNAs

Ferroptosis is a novel form of programmed cell death, and it is characterized by iron-dependent oxidative damage, lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species accumulation. Notable studies have revealed that ferroptosis plays vital roles in tumor occurrence and that abundant ferroptosis in cells can inhibit tumor progression. Recently, some noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), particularly microRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, and circular RNAs, have been shown to be involved in biological processes of ferroptosis, thus affecting cancer growth. However, the definite regulatory mechanism of this phenomenon is still unclear. To clarify this issue, increasing studies have focused on the regulatory roles of ncRNAs in the initiation and development of ferroptosis and the role of ferroptosis in progression of various cancers, such as lung, liver, and breast cancers. In this review, we systematically summarized the relationship between ferroptosis-associated ncRNAs and cancer progression. Moreover, additional evidence is needed to identify the role of ferroptosis-related ncRNAs in cancer progression. This review will help us to understand the roles of ncRNAs in ferroptosis and cancer progression and may provide new ideas for exploring novel diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers for cancer in the future.     

Hemin-induced platelet activation and ferroptosis is mediated through ROS-driven proteasomal activity and inflammasome activation: Protection by Melatonin

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are capable of inducing cell death or apoptosis. Recently, we demonstrated that lipid-ROS can mediate ferroptosis and activation of human platelets. Ferroptosis is an intracellular iron-mediated cell death, distinct from classical apoptosis and necrosis, which is mediated through the accumulation of ROS, lipid peroxides and depletion of cellular GSH. Lately, we demonstrated that hemoglobin degradation product hemin induces ferroptosis in platelets via ROS and lipid peroxidation. In this study, we demonstrate that hemin-induced ferroptosis in platelets is mediated through ROS-driven proteasome activity and inflammasome activation, which were mitigated by Melatonin (MLT). Although inflammasome activation is linked with pyroptosis, it is still not clear whether ferroptosis is associated with inflammasome activation. Our study for the first time demonstrates an association of platelet activation/ferroptosis with proteasome activity and inflammasome activation. Although, high-throughput screening has recognized ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) and liproxstatin-1 (Lip-1) as potent ferroptosis inhibitors, having an endogenous antioxidant such as MLT as ferroptosis inhibitor is of high interest. MLT is a well-known chronobiotic hormone that regulates the circadian rhythms in vertebrates. It also exhibits potent antioxidant and ROS quenching capabilities. MLT can regulate fundamental cellular functions by exhibiting cytoprotective, oncostatic, antiaging, anti-venom, and immunomodulatory activities. The ROS scavenging capacity of MLT is key for its cytoprotective and anti-apoptotic properties. Considering the anti-ferroptotic and anti-apoptotic potentials of MLT, it could be a promising clinical application to treat hemolytic, thrombotic and thrombocytopenic conditions. Therefore, we propose MLT as a pharmacological and therapeutic agent to inhibit ferroptosis and platelet activation.     

老年缺血性心力衰竭的心脏DNA甲基化编码重编程与心肌细胞焦亡、铁死亡的关联

摘要 目的：探讨老年缺血性心力衰竭的心脏DNA甲基化编码重编程与心肌细胞焦亡、铁死亡的关联性。方法：2019年12月到2021月2月,选择在本院诊治的老年缺血性心力衰竭115例作为心衰组,同期选择在本院体检的非心血管疾病老年人群115例作为对照组。检测心脏DNA甲基化编码重编程、心肌细胞焦亡、铁死亡指标表达情况并进行相关性分析。结果：心衰组的心脏DNA甲基化编码重编程指标-miR-92a、miR-130a相对表达水平高于对照组（P<0.05）。心衰组的Caspase-1蛋白、Caspase-4蛋白相对表达水平高于对照组（P<0.05）。心衰组的铁调素含量高于对照组（P<0.05）。在两组230例入选者中,Spearsman相关分析显示：缺血性心力衰竭与miR-92a、miR-130a、半胱氨酸蛋白酶1（Caspase-1）、半胱氨酸蛋白酶4（Caspase-4）、铁调素存在正向相关性（P<0.05）。Logistic回归分析显示：miR-92a、miR-130a、Caspase-1、Caspase-4、铁调素为导致缺血性心力衰竭发生的重要因素（P<0.05）。结论：老年缺血性心力衰竭患者多伴随有心脏DNA甲基化编码重编程与心肌细胞焦亡、铁死亡,后三者与缺血性心力衰竭的发生存在关联性,也是导致缺血性心力衰竭发生的重要因素。     

Downregulation of PPARα mediates FABP1 expression,contributing to IgA nephropathy by stimulating ferroptosis in human mesangial cells

Immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN) is the commonest primary glomerulonephritis, and a major cause of end-stage renal disease; however, its pathogenesis requires elucidation. Here, a hub gene, FABP1, and signaling pathway, PPARα, were selected as key in IgAN pathogenesis by combined weighted gene correlation network analysis of clinical traits and identification of differentially expressed genes from three datasets. FABP1 and PPARα levels were lower in IgAN than control kidney, and linearly positively correlated with one another, while FABP1 levels were negatively correlated with urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio, and GPX4 levels were significantly decreased in IgAN. In human mesangial cells (HMCs), PPARα and FABP1 levels were significantly decreased after Gd-IgA1 stimulation and mitochondria appeared structurally damaged, while reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were significantly increased, and glutathione and GPX4 decreased, relative to controls. GPX4 levels were decreased, and those of ACSL4 increased on siPPARα and siFABP1 siRNA treatment. In PPARα lentivirus-transfected HMCs stimulated by Gd-IgA1, ROS, MDA, and ACSL4 were decreased; glutathione and GPX4, and immunofluorescence colocalization of PPARα and GPX4, increased; and damaged mitochondria reduced. Hence, PPARα pathway downregulation can reduce FABP1 expression, affecting GPX4 and ACSL4 levels, causing HMC ferroptosis, and contributing to IgAN pathogenesis.     

甲硫氨酸限制对骨肉瘤细胞增殖、凋亡及铁死亡的影响

摘要 目的：探讨甲硫氨酸限制对骨肉瘤细胞增殖,凋亡和铁死亡的影响。方法：使用细胞计数检测剥夺甲硫氨酸对三株不同的骨肉瘤细胞系增殖的影响;高通量测序（RNA-seq）分析甲硫氨酸限制后骨肉瘤细胞的转录组学变化;流式细胞术检测细胞周期,凋亡以及ROS,脂质ROS水平;Western blot检测铁死亡关键蛋白谷胱甘肽过氧化物GPX4以及铁死亡标志蛋白前列腺素内过氧化物合成Cox-2的表达。结果：甲硫氨酸限制显著抑制骨肉瘤细胞的增殖（P<0.001）;RNA-seq分析筛选出1719个差异表达基因,基因富集分析发现甲硫氨酸限制可显著激活铁死亡通路并显著抑制细胞周期通路;细胞实验证实甲硫氨酸限制将骨肉瘤细胞阻滞在G2M期,显著诱导凋亡细胞比例增加;同时,细胞内Cox-2的表达增加,GPX4的活性降低,活性氧和脂质活性氧积累,最终导致细胞死亡,且这种作用可以被铁死亡抑制剂Fer-1部分挽救。结论：本研究的结果为甲硫氨酸限制治疗骨肉瘤提供了一定的科学依据。     

miR-20b-5p靶向MAPK1调控脑出血过程中脑微血管内皮细胞铁死亡

摘要 目的：探讨miR-20b-5p对氧糖剥夺（OGD）/Hemin处理的脑微血管内皮细胞（BMVEC）功能的影响及机制。方法：将BMVEC分为Control组、agomir-NC组、agomir-miR-20b-5p组、antagomir-NC组和antagomir-miR-20b-5p组。使用Lipofectamine 2000试剂对细胞进行相应的转染处理。BMVEC转染后，将BMVEC再分为Control组、OGD/Hemin组（O/H组）、OGD/Hemin+agomir-NC组（O/H+agomir-NC组）、OGD/Hemin+agomir-miR-20b-5p组（O/H+agomir-miR-20b-5p组）、OGD/Hemin+antagomir-NC组（O/H+antagomir-NC组）和OGD/Hemin+antagomir-miR-20b-5p组（O/H+antagomir-miR-20b-5p组）。Control组BMVEC正常培养，其他组BMVEC进行OGD/Hemin处理。MTT法检测BMVEC增殖，TUNEL染色检测BMVEC凋亡，Transwell检测BMVEC迁移。使用试剂盒检测超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶（GSH-Px）和丙二醛（MDA）水平。使用Iron Assay试剂盒检测Fe²⁺含量。通过qRT-PCR检测miR-20b-5p和MAPK1 mRNA水平。通过Western blot检测MAPK1、Bax、Bcl-2、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4（GPX4）和前列腺素内过氧化物合酶2（PTGS2）蛋白表达水平。通过免疫荧光染色检测MAPK1的荧光强度水平。结果：与Control组和agomir-NC组比较，agomir-miR-20b-5p组BMVEC中的miR-20b-5p水平升高（P<0.05）。与Control组和antagomir-NC组比较，antagomir-miR-20b-5p组BMVEC中的miR-20b-5p水平降低（P<0.05）。与Control组比较，O/H组BMVEC中的miR-20b-5p水平降低，细胞活力降低，TUNEL阳性率和Bax蛋白表达水平升高，Bcl-2蛋白表达水平降低，迁移数量降低，SOD和GSH-Px活性降低，MDA含量升高，Fe²⁺含量和PTGS2的蛋白表达水平升高，GPX4的蛋白表达水平降低，MAPK1的mRNA和蛋白表达水平以及相对荧光强度升高（P<0.05）。与O/H组和O/H+agomir-NC组比较，O/H+agomir-miR-20b-5p组BMVEC中的miR-20b-5p水平升高，细胞活力升高，TUNEL阳性率和Bax蛋白表达水平降低，Bcl-2蛋白表达水平升高，迁移数量升高，SOD和GSH-Px活性升高，MDA含量降低，Fe²⁺含量和PTGS2的蛋白表达水平降低，GPX4的蛋白表达水平升高，MAPK1的mRNA和蛋白表达水平以及相对荧光强度降低（P<0.05）。与O/H组和O/H+antagomir-NC组比较，O/H+antagomir-miR-20b-5p组BMVEC中的miR-20b-5p水平降低，细胞活力降低，TUNEL阳性率和Bax蛋白表达水平升高，Bcl-2蛋白表达水平降低，迁移数量降低，SOD和GSH-Px活性降低，MDA含量升高，Fe²⁺含量和PTGS2的蛋白表达水平升高，GPX4的蛋白表达水平降低，MAPK1的mRNA和蛋白表达水平以及相对荧光强度升高（P<0.05）。结论：本研究表明上调miR-20b-5p通过抑制OGD/Hemin处理的BMVEC中MAPK1的表达从而抑制了铁死亡途径。     

死亡相关的LncRNAs在甲状腺癌中的预后价值及预后风险模型构建

目的:探讨铁死亡相关的长链非编码RNAs(LncRNAs)在甲状腺癌中的预后价值并构建预后风险模型。方法:从癌症基因组图谱(TCGA)数据库下载甲状腺癌的转录本数据和临床数据,铁死亡相关的基因数据集是从铁死亡数据库(http://www.zhounan.org/ferrdb/)下载的259个基因集。得到铁死亡相关LncRNAs,与患者临床信息合并后,通过单因素Cox回归分析和Kaplan-Meier生存分析两种方法得到与甲状腺癌预后相关的铁死亡LncRNAs,通过R的survival包构建COX模型以此来建立最佳预后风险模型并予以验证。结果:获得30个铁死亡相关的LncRNAs,多因素cox分析得到10个与甲状腺癌预后相关的铁死亡LncRNAs,包括AL136366.1、AL162231.2、CRNDE、AC004918.3、LINC02471、AC092279.1、AC046143.1、LINC02454、DOCK9-DT、AC008063.1。Kaplan-Meier生存分析表明高风险组预后较差。单因素和多因素Cox分析表明风险评分可以作为独立预后因子。KEGG通路富集分析发现,差异基因可能与嘧啶代谢、核苷酸切除修复、NOTCH_信号通路等通路有关。结论:通过生物信息学方法筛选出10个与甲状腺癌预后的铁死亡相关LncRNAs,并成功构建预后风险模型。