Conversion of hardwood forests to spruce and pine plantations strongly reduced soil methane sink in Germany

Well‐drained forest soils are thought to be a significant sink for atmospheric methane. Recent research suggests that land use change reduces the soil methane sink by diminishing populations of methane oxidizing bacteria. Here we report soil CH₄ uptake from ‘natural’ mature beech forests and from mature pine and spruce plantations in two study areas of Germany with distinct climate and soils. The CH₄ uptake rates of both beech forests at Solling and Unterlüß were about two–three times the CH₄ uptake rates of the adjacent pine and spruce plantations, indicating a strong impact of forest type on the soil CH₄ sink. The CH₄ uptake rates of sieved mineral soils from our study sites confirmed the tree species effect and indicate that methanotrophs were mainly reduced in the 0–5 cm mineral soil depth. The reasons for the reduction are still unknown. We found no site effect between Solling and Unterlüß, however, CH₄ uptake rates from Solling were significantly higher at the same effective CH₄ diffusivity. This potential site effect was masked by higher soil water contents at Solling. Soil pH (H₂O) explained 71% of the variation in CH₄ uptake rates of sieved mineral soils from the 0–5 cm depth, while cation exchange capacity, soil organic carbon, soil nitrogen and total phosphorous content were not correlated with CH₄ uptake rates. Comparing 1998–99, annual CH₄ uptake rates increased by 69–111% in the beech and spruce stands and by 5–25% in the pine stands, due primarily to differences in growing season soil moisture. Cumulative CH₄ uptake rates from November throughout April were rather constant in both years. The CH₄ uptake rates of each stand were separately predicted using daily average soil matric potential and a previously developed empirical model. The model results revealed that soil matric potential explains 53–87% of the temporal variation in CH₄ uptake. The differences between measured and predicted annual CH₄ uptake rates were less than 10%, except for the spruce stand at Solling in 1998 (17%). Based on data from this study and from the literature, we calculated a total reduction in the soil CH₄ sink of 31% for German forests due in part to conversion of deciduous to coniferous forests.     

A key developmental switch during Norway spruce somatic embryogenesis is induced by withdrawal of growth regulators and is associated with cell death and extracellular acidification.

The biotechnology of somatic embryogenesis holds considerable promise for clonal propagation and breeding programs in forestry. To efficiently regulate the whole process of plant regeneration through somatic embryogenesis, it is of outmost importance to understand early developmental events when somatic embryos are just formed. In Norway spruce, somatic embryos transdifferentiate from proembryogenic masses (PEMs). This work describes the developmental dynamics (frequency distribution of PEMs and early somatic embryos) of the whole embryogenic suspension culture growing in the presence and absence of plant growth regulators (PGRs), auxin and cytokinin. The experiments have shown that PEM-to-somatic embryo transition is a key developmental switch that determines the yield and quality of mature somatic embryos and ultimately plant production. This switch was induced by the withdrawal of PGRs in cell suspension leading to a rapid accumulation of early somatic embryos (to a maximum of 75% of the entire population of suspension culture) and concomitant degradation of PEMs. The latter was evident from increased level of cell death measured through spectrophotometric Evans blue staining assay. Proembryogenic mass-to-embryo transition and concomitant activation of cell death were mediated by strong extracellular acidification. Therefore, buffering PGR-free culture medium at high (pH 5.8) or low (pH 4.5) levels of pH inhibited both PEM-to-embryo transition and cell death. The yield of mature somatic embryos on abscisic acid (ABA)-containing medium was increased up to 10-fold if the suspension culture had been pretreated for 1 to 9 days in unbuffered PGR-free medium. In this case a large proportion (75%) of the total number of mature embryos was formed within a short, 5-week, contact with ABA. The latter is practically important because prolonged contact with ABA suppresses the growth of somatic embryo plants. Based on these results, an improved method for regulating somatic embryogenesis was set up and tested for nine genotypes of Norway spruce. Over 800 plants regenerated from all tested genotypes demonstrated a good performance in the greenhouse and they were transferred to the field.     

瑞典南部相邻桦树和欧洲云杉林分的地表植被和土壤特征

对瑞曲南部23对相邻的桦树和欧洲云杉林分的地表植被和土壤特征进行了研究。桦树和欧洲云杉林分曲芒发草（Descham0psia flexuosa L.）和苔藓植物的频度几乎没有区别,但桦树林分越桔（Vaccinium myrtillus L.）和黑果越桔（Vac-cinium vitis-idaea L.）的频度远大于欧洲云杉林分的频度。欧洲云杉林分各层土壤（腐殖质层、0－10cm矿物质土壤层和11－30cm矿物质土壤层）的酸度稍大于松树林分各层土壤的酸度。欧洲云杉森分土壤可交换性K、Ca和Mg离子的含量稍大于树林分土壤的含量,但差别不明显,只有可交换性Na离子的含量在欧洲云杉林分土训中明显偏高。由于现在硫沉降明显降低,相对于树冠层而言欧洲云杉冠层而言欧洲云杉冠层较高的阳离子干沉降在一定程度上可能中和土壤酸化对瑞典南部欧洲云杉林的影响。     

夏干萨特树轮年表中降水信息的探讨与326年降水重建

夏干萨特位于新疆天山中段乌鲁木齐河山区,在此干旱,半干旱地区的森林下限所采集的天山云杉（Picca schrenkinna var.tianschanica)树轮样本建立的树轮宽度年表具有最大的平均敏感度和最大的标准关蓄意助记词件表可能含有最多的降水信息,利用相关分析的方法计算了年轮宽度指数和气候要素间的相关关系,发现5月份的降水与年表的相关最好,进一步计算了旬降水量与年表的相关关系,发现5月下旬的降水与年表的单相关系灵敏最高,5月下旬的降水是森林下限云杉生长的主要限制因子,这一结果具有明确的树木生理学意义,云杉直径生长主要在5-8月份,其中5-6月份形成大约一半的年轮,5月下旬位于年轮形成关键时段的中部,为轮宽形成的最活跃期,同时5月下旬降水的大变率与夏干萨特年表的高敏感度相一致,从另一角度说明了5月下旬降水作为森林下限天山云杉生长关键限制因子的适当性,重建了大西沟气象站5月下旬326a的降水并分析了其长期变化特征,发现320多年来的5月下旬降水分为8个完整的干湿变化阶段,其中最干期出现在1701-1722年,最湿期出现在1961-1981年,降水序列具有显著的64,32,22,14,5和11a变化周期,其中的22a及11a周期与太阳黑子的活动周期相一致,利用方差分析方法进行了未来干湿变化趋势的预测,发现2001-2007年以降水偏少为主,而2008-2015年以偏多为主,这对于北疆重要粮食作物冬小麦的长期产量预报及种植规划具有重要意义。     

Relations between cytokinin level, bud development and apical control in Norway spruce, Picea abies

In conifers such as Norway spruce, the extent of shoot growth is predetermined by the size and number of embryonal organs of the buds laid down the previous year. As it is known that cytokinins have a key role in bud development a possible hypothesis is that the level of cytokinin in the buds during their formation determines their size and complexity. As a first step to test this hypothesis we compared cytokinin levels in buds of different size of annual shoots from 15- to 20-year-old trees of Picea abies (L.) Karst. Apical buds from the leaders, and from branches in lower parts of the trees, were collected in April, July and August. The difference in size of the buds and the shoots growing from them was considerable in these three positions. Extracts were purified by immunoaffinity columns, and the retained compounds were separated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Quantification was made by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the accuracy of this method was checked by measurements with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and UV absorption. Zeatin riboside (ZR) was the most abundant cytokinin, but isopentenyladenosine (iPA) was also present in all samples. The large apical bud of the leader contained much higher cytokinin concentrations than the considerably smaller buds from lower positions, and during the period of secondary growth in July, similar relationships were found for annual stem tissue from different positions. The possible role of ZR as a controlling factor in bud development and apical control is discussed. Our conclusion is that the level of zeatin-type cytokinins appears to play an important role in the establishment of differences in bud size and, thereby, the architecture of the tree crown.     

天山森林植物功能性状与碳库沿海拔梯度的变化

植物功能性状是能够将植物个体特征、群落结构和生态系统功能结合起来的良好载体,但关于在环境梯度上如何通过植物功能性状的连续变化来构建群落、以及植物功能性状如何反映生态系统功能等问题尚有较多疑问。为探讨天山森林植物功能性状与其碳库在海拔梯度上的联系,分析了14个群落尺度上的植物功能性状指标和各组分碳密度沿海拔的变化规律及二者之间的关系。结果表明:(1)受海拔梯度上环境因子的影响,群落尺度上植物功能性状和碳密度的垂直分布并不一致:随海拔升高,叶片碳氮比(C/N)逐渐上升,叶片碳含量(C_(leaf))、比根长(SRL)和植株高度(H)升高后降低,叶绿素含量(Chl)、细根磷含量(P_(root))、叶片氮磷比(N/P)逐渐下降,细根碳含量(C_(root))先升高后趋于平缓,细根氮含量(N_(root))先下降后又有所回升,叶片氮含量(N_(leaf))、木质素含量(LLC)、叶干物质含量(LDMC)、细根干物质含量(RDMC)在各海拔段间无显著差异;(2)比根长(SRL)和植株高度(H)通过影响资源的获取和利用,C与P通过对养分的限制和在器官中的分配,从而影响植被光合作用,与天山森林碳密度显著相关;高木质素含量(LLC)导致植物残体分解速率变慢而与土壤碳密度(SCD)和群落总碳密度(TCD)呈显著负相关关系。随海拔升高,植被碳密度(VCD)先升后降,土壤碳密度(SCD)和总碳密度(TCD)逐渐升高。植物功能性状与环境因子和森林的结构功能相互作用、相互影响,三者之间的关系还需在大尺度上进一步验证。     

Patterns of NPP,GPP, respiration,and NEP during boreal forest succession

We combined year‐round eddy covariance with biometry and biomass harvests along a chronosequence of boreal forest stands that were 1, 6, 15, 23, 40, ～74, and ～154 years old to understand how ecosystem production and carbon stocks change during recovery from stand‐replacing crown fire. Live biomass (C_live) was low in the 1‐ and 6‐year‐old stands, and increased following a logistic pattern to high levels in the 74‐ and 154‐year‐old stands. Carbon stocks in the forest floor (C_{forest floor}) and coarse woody debris (C_CWD) were comparatively high in the 1‐year‐old stand, reduced in the 6‐ through 40‐year‐old stands, and highest in the 74‐ and 154‐year‐old stands. Total net primary production (TNPP) was reduced in the 1‐ and 6‐year‐old stands, highest in the 23‐ through 74‐year‐old stands and somewhat reduced in the 154‐year‐old stand. The NPP decline at the 154‐year‐old stand was related to increased autotrophic respiration rather than decreased gross primary production (GPP). Net ecosystem production (NEP), calculated by integrated eddy covariance, indicated the 1‐ and 6‐year‐old stands were losing carbon, the 15‐year‐old stand was gaining a small amount of carbon, the 23‐ and 74‐year‐old stands were gaining considerable carbon, and the 40‐ and 154‐year‐old stands were gaining modest amounts of carbon. The recovery from fire was rapid; a linear fit through the NEP observations at the 6‐ and 15‐year‐old stands indicated the transition from carbon source to sink occurred within 11–12 years. The NEP decline at the 154‐year‐old stand appears related to increased losses from C_live by tree mortality and possibly from C_{forest floor} by decomposition. Our findings support the idea that NPP, carbon production efficiency (NPP/GPP), NEP, and carbon storage efficiency (NEP/TNPP) all decrease in old boreal stands.     

Insect‐induced tree mortality of boreal forests in eastern Canada under a changing climate

Forest insects are major disturbances that induce tree mortality in eastern coniferous (or fir-spruce) forests in eastern North America. The spruce budworm (SBW) (Choristoneura fumiferana [Clemens]) is the most devastating insect causing tree mortality. However, the relative importance of insect-caused mortality versus tree mortality caused by other agents and how this relationship will change with climate change is not known. Based on permanent sample plots across eastern Canada, we combined a logistic model with a negative model to estimate tree mortality. The results showed that tree mortality increased mainly due to forest insects. The mean difference in annual tree mortality between plots disturbed by insects and those without insect disturbance was 0.0680 per year (P < 0.0001, T-test), and the carbon sink loss was about 2.87t C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ larger than in natural forests. We also found that annual tree mortality increased significantly with the annual climate moisture index (CMI) and decreased significantly with annual minimum temperature (T_min), annual mean temperature (T_mean) and the number of degree days below 0°C (DD0), which was inconsistent with previous studies (Adams et al. 2009; van Mantgem et al. 2009; Allen et al. 2010). Furthermore, the results for the trends in the magnitude of forest insect outbreaks were consistent with those of climate factors for annual tree mortality. Our results demonstrate that forest insects are the dominant cause of the tree mortality in eastern Canada but that tree mortality induced by insect outbreaks will decrease in eastern Canada under warming climate.     

长白山北坡土壤氮矿化时空分异特征

利用土壤温度连续观测数据,基于文献报道的土壤氮矿化测定数据,对长白山主要林型的年矿化量进行模拟计算,同时修正了以往利用气温计算造成的偏差以及相关模型中的参数错误.根据长白山各植被带的土壤温度观测数据,对各植被带的矿化量进行估计.位于基带的针阔混交林的矿化量为58.5 kg · hm-2 · a-1,红松云冷杉林为34.5 kg · hm-2 · a-1,岳桦云冷杉林为28.5 kg · hm-2 · a-1,苔原为19.6 kg · hm-2 · a-1.建立了通用于各植被带的土壤矿化对温度(t)的综合回归模型(y=0 038255e(0.1392t)).同时用所建立的综合方程,模拟计算了各海拔高度土壤氮矿化季节变化,并指出海拔每升高100m矿化速率降低2.31 kg · hm-2 · a-1.