Current issues in the chemistry of cytochromec oxidase

Some contemporary issues relevant to the chemistry of mammalian cytochromec oxidase are discussed. These include the optical properties of heme A and the spectroscopic consequences of the differences in side-chain substitution compared to heme B; a common fallacy concerning the electrostatic exchange interaction between cytochromea ₃ and Cu_B; the question of the number and location of the copper components of the enzyme; and the mode of binding of ligands such as cyanide and azide.     

5′-Isothiocyanato-N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid: a chemically reactive site-directed irreversible ligand for phytotropin receptors

A chemically reactive analog of the phytotropin N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) was synthesized and evaluated as a site-directed irreversible ligand for the NPA receptor. The NPA analog (5-isothiocyanato-N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid; NCS-NPA) was synthesized in two steps. Pretreatment of etiolated Helianthus hypocotyl segments with NCS-NPA at concentrations in excess of 1 M resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of basipetal [¹⁴C]IAA transport. Net uptake of IAA by hypocotyl segments was stimulated by NCS-NPA at concentrations of 1 M or greater. NCS-NPA inhibited the saturable binding of [³H]NPA in Helianthus microsomes in a dose-dependent fashion with 50% inhibition occurring at NCS-NPA concentrations of 3 to 10 nM. The binding affinity of [³H]NPA in microsomes pretreated with NCS-NPA followed by extensive washing was substantially reduced. These results demonstrate that NCS-NPA is a site-directed irreversible ligand for the NPA receptor and suggest that it may be of use in the purification and characterization of this biologically important receptor.Abbreviations ANPA 5-amino-naphthylphthalamic acid - IAA indole-3-acetic acid - NCS-NPA 5-isothiocyanato-N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid - NPA N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid - TLC thin-layer chromatography     

Effects of magnetic fields on mammary tumor development induced by 7, 12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene in rats

A series of epidemiological studies have indicated associations between exposure to magnetic fields (MFs) and a variety of cancers, including breast cancer. In order to test the possibility that MF acts as a cancer promoter or copromoter, four separate experiments have been conducted in rats in which the effects of chronic exposure to MFs on the development of mammary tumors induced by 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) were determined. Female rats were exposed in magnetic coils for 91 days (24 h/day) to either alternating current (AC; 50 Hz)-MF or direct current (DC)-MF. Magnetic flux density of the DC-MF was 15 mT. Two AC-MF exposures used a homogeneous field with a flux density of 30 mT (rms); one used a gradient field with flux density ranging from 0.3–1 μT. DMBA (5 mg) was administered orally at the onset of MF exposure and was repeated thrice at intervals of 1 week. In each experiment, 18–36 animals were exposed in 6 magnetic coils. The same number of rats were used as sham-exposed control. These control animals were treated with DMBA and were placed in dummy coils in the same room as the MF-exposed rats. Furthermore, groups of age-matched rats (reference controls) were treated with DMBA but housed in another room to exclude any MF exposure due to the magnetic stray field from the MF produced by coils. At the end of the exposure or sham-exposure period, tumor number and weight or size of tumors were determined at necropsy. Results were as follows: In sham-exposed animals or reference controls, the tumor incidence varied between 50 and 78% in the 4 experiments. The average number of mammary tumors per tumor-bearing animal varied between 1.6 and 2.9. In none of the experiments did MFs significantly alter tumor incidence, but in one of the experiments with AC-MF exposure at 30 mT, the number of tumors per tumor-bearing animal was significantly increased. Furthermore, exposure to a DC-MF at 15 mT significantly enhanced the tumor weight. Exposure to a gradient AC-MF at 0.3–1 μT exerted no significant effects. These experiments seem to indicate that MFs at high flux densities may act as a promoter or copromoter of breast cancer. However, this interpretation must be considered only a tentative conclusion because of the limitations of this study, particularly the small sample size used for MF exposure and the lack of repetition of data. © 1993 Wiley-Liss. Inc.     

急性肝损伤大鼠模型的血浆氨基酸代谢变化模式

以Ｄ－氨基半乳糖（Ｄ－Ｇａｌａｃｔｏｓａｍｉｎｅ,Ｄ－ＧａｌＮ）造成急性肝损伤（急性肝炎、急性肝坏死）大鼠模型后、对照观察了急性肝损伤大鼠血浆氨基酸的变化,建立了大鼠急性肝损伤时血浆氨基酸的变化模式并对其发生机理进行了探讨。大鼠血浆氨基酸的测定采用聚酰薄层荧光分析技术,其测定结果是：急性肝炎组,酪氨酸（Ｔｙｒ）、天冬氨酸（Ａｓｐ）、谷氨酰胺（Ｇｌｎ）和鸟氨酸（Ｏｒｎ）升高,精氨酸（Ａｒｇ）下降,其余氨基酸无显著变化。急性肝坏死组,除Ａｒｇ显著下降外,其余所有氨基酸都显著升高,而两组支链氨基酸（ＢＣＡＡ）／芳香族氨基酸（ＡＡＡ）克分子比值均显著下降。     

Fusion protein mediated prodrug activation (FMPA) in vivo

A two component system, consisting of a fusion protein and an appropriate prodrug, suited to perform selective tumor therapy in vivo, is presented. The fusion protein, owing to its humanized carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)-specific variable region, specifically binds to CEA-expressing tumors and has an enzymatic activity comparable to human β-glucuronidase. The prodrug is a nontoxic glucuronide-spacer-derivative of doxorubicin decomposing to doxorubicin by enzymatic deglucuronidation. In vivo studies in nude mice bearing human CEA-expressing tumor xenografts revealed that 7 d after injection of 20 mg/kg fusion protein, a high specificity ratio (>100:1) was obtained between tumor and plasma. Injection of 250 mg/kg of prodrug at d 7 resulted in tumor therapeutic effects superior to conventional chemotherapy without any detectable toxicity. These superior therapeutic effects that were observed using established human tumor xenografts can be explained by the approx 10-fold higher drug concentrations found in tumors of mice treated with fusion protein and prodrug than in those treated with the maximal tolerable dose of drug alone.     

Na+, K+, Cl− cotransport and its regulation in Ehrlich ascites Tumor cells. Ca2+/Calmodulin and protein kinase C dependent pathways

Summary Net Cl^– uptake as well as unidirectional³⁶Cl influx during regulatory volume increase (RVI) require external K⁺. Half-maximal rate of bumetanide-sensitive³⁶Cl uptake is attained at about 3.3mm external K⁺. The bumetanide-sensitive K⁺ influx found during RVI is strongly dependent on both Na⁺ and Cl^–. The bumetanide-sensitive unidirectional Na⁺ influx during RVI is dependent on K⁺ as well as on Cl^–. The cotransporter activated during RVI in Ehrlich cells, therefore, seems to transport Na⁺, K⁺ and Cl^–. In the presence of ouabain and Ba⁺ the stoichiometry of the bumetanide-sensitive net fluxes can be measured at 1.0 Na⁺, 0.8 K⁺, 2.0 Cl^– or approximately 1 : Na, 1 : K, 2 : Cl. Under these circumstances the K⁺ and Cl^– flux ratios (influx/efflux) for the bumetanide-sensitive component were estimated at 1.34 ±0.08 and 1.82 ± 0.15 which should be compared to the gradient for the Na⁺, K⁺, 2Cl^– cotransport system at 1.75 ± 0.24.Addition of sucrose to hypertonicity causes the Ehrlich cells to shrink with no signs of RVI, whereas shrinkage with hypertonic standard medium (all extracellular ion concentrations increased) results in a RVI response towards the original cell volume. Under both conditions a bumetanide-sensitive unidirectional K⁺ influx is activated. During hypotonic conditions a small bumetanide-sensitive K⁺ influx is observed, indicating that the cotransport system is already activated.The cotransport is activated 10–15 fold by bradykinin, an agonist which stimulates phospholipase C resulting in release of internal Ca²⁺ and activation of protein kinase C.The anti-calmodulin drug pimozide inhibits most of the bumetanide-sensitive K⁺ influx during RVI. The cotransporter can be activated by the phorbol ester TPA. These results indicate that the stimulation of the Na⁺, K⁺, Cl^– cotransport involves both Ca²⁺/calmodulin and protein kinase C.     

Polyamine Metabolism in Experimental Brain Tumors of Rat

Abstract: Biosynthesis and accumulation of the polyamines putrescine, spermidine, and spermine are closely associated with cellular growth processes. We examined polyamine levels and the activity of their first rate-limiting enzyme, ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), in stereotactically induced experimental gliomas of the rat brain 1 and 2 weeks after implantation. Regional ODC activity and polyamine levels were determined in the tumor and in the ipsi- and contralateral striatum, white matter, and cerebral cortex. In the tumor, both ODC activity and polyamine levels markedly increased with progressive tumor growth, as compared to those in the white matter of the opposite hemisphere. In the peritumoral brain tissue, ODC activity did not change, but there was a marked increase of putrescine and, to a lesser degree, of spermidine and spermine almost throughout the whole ipsilateral hemisphere. ODC activity, therefore, seems to be a reliable marker of neoplastic growth in the brain, which may be of use for new clinical concepts of the diagnosis and therapy of brain tumors. The more diffuse distribution of polyamines, however, may be associated with the formation and spreading of edema, which would explain some of the biological effects of tumors on distant brain tissue.     

Genetic control of retroviral disease in aging wild mice

Different populations of wild mice (Mus musculus domesticus) in Los Angeles and Ventura Counties were observed over their lifespan in captivity for expression of infectious murine leukemia virus (MuLV) and murine mammary tumor virus (MMTV) and for the occurrence of cancer and other diseases. In most populations of feral mice these indigenous retroviruses were infrequently expressed and cancer seldom occurred until later in life (>2 years old). MMTV was found in the milk of about 50% of wild mice, but was associated with only a low incidence (>1%) of breast cancer after one year of age. By contrast, in several populations, most notably at a squab farm near Lake Casitas (LC), infectious MuLV acquired at birth via milk was highly prevalent, and the infected mice were prone to leukemia and a lower motor neuron paralytic disease after one year of age. These two diseases were both caused by the same infectious (ecotropic)strain of MuLV and were the principal cause of premature death in these aging LC mice. A dominant gene called FV-4^R restricting the infection with ecotropic MuLV was found segregating in LC mice. Mice inheriting this FV-4^R allele were resistant to the ecotropic MuLV associated lymphoma and paralysis. The FV-4^R allele represents a defective endogenous MuLV provirus DNA segment that expresses an ecotropic MuLV envelope-related glycoprotein (gp70) on the cell surface. This FV-4^R encoded gp70 presumably occupies the receptor for ecotropic MuLV and blocks entry of the virus. The FV-4^R gene was probably acquired by the naturally occurring crossbreeding of LC feral mice with another species of feral mice (Mus castaneus) from Southeast Asia. The FV-4^R gp70 does not block entry of the amphotropic MuLV that uses a separate cell surface receptor. Therefore LC mice continued to be susceptible to the highly prevalent but weakly lymphogenic and nonparalytogenic amphotropic strain of MuLV. The study points out the potential of feral populations to reveal genes associated with specific disease resistance.     

AREL1 resists the apoptosis induced by TGF-β by inhibiting SMAC in vascular endothelial cells

Abnormal apoptosis of vascular endothelial cells is an important feature of arteriosclerosis (AS). Here, we induced apoptosis in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) using transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), and investigated the role of antiapoptotic E3 ubiquitin ligase (AREL1) in the apoptosis of vascular endothelial cells. We proved that AREL1 is downregulated in TGF-β treated HUVECs. The overexpression of AREL1 inhibits the activation of Caspase-3 and Caspase-9 and attenuates cell apoptosis induced by TGF-β. According to the result of coimmunoprecipitation, AREL1 interacts with the proapoptotic proteins the second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (SMAC) in TGF-β treated HUVECs. In addition, miR-320b inhibits the expression of AREL1, and the overexpression of AREL1 attenuates the apoptosis induced by miR-320b mimics in HUVECs. In conclusion, AREL1 is downregulated by miR-320b. AREL1 overexpression inhibits TGF-β induced apoptosis through downregulating SMAC in vascular endothelial cells. Our study explores pathogenesis regulation mechanism and new biological therapeutic targets for vascular disease.     

Dieckol,a natural polyphenolic drug,inhibits the proliferation and migration of colon cancer cells by inhibiting PI3K,AKT, and mTOR phosphorylation

This study investigated that dieckol (DKL), a natural drug, inhibits colon cancer cell proliferation and migration by inhibiting phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) phosphorylation in HCT-116 cells. The cells were treated with DKL in various concentrations (32 and 50 μM) for 24 h and then analyzed for various experiments. MTT (tetrazolium bromide) and crystal violet assay investigated DKL-mediated cytotoxicity. Dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate staining was used to assess the reactive oxygen species (ROS) measurement, and apoptotic changes were studied by dual acridine orange and ethidium bromide staining. Protein expression of cell survival, cell cycle, proliferation, and apoptosis protein was evaluated by western blot analysis. Results indicated that DKL produces significant cytotoxicity in HCT-116, and the half-maximal inhibitory concentration was found to be 32 μM for 24-h incubation. Moreover, effective production of ROS and enhanced apoptotic signs were observed upon DKL treatment in HCT-116. DKL induces the expression of phosphorylated PI3K, AKT, and mToR-associated enhanced expression of cyclin-D1, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)-4, CDK-6, and Bcl-2 in HCT-116. In addition, proapoptotic proteins such as Bax, caspase-9, and caspase-3 were significantly enhanced by DKL treatment in HCT-116. Hence, DKL has been considered a chemotherapeutic drug by impeding the expression of PI3K-, AKT-, and mTOR-mediated inhibition of proliferation and cell cycle-regulating proteins.