Mechanisms of waterlogging tolerance in wheat – a review of root and shoot physiology

We review the detrimental effects of waterlogging on physiology, growth and yield of wheat. We highlight traits contributing to waterlogging tolerance and genetic diversity in wheat. Death of seminal roots and restriction of adventitious root length due to O₂ deficiency result in low root:shoot ratio. Genotypes differ in seminal root anoxia tolerance, but mechanisms remain to be established; ethanol production rates do not explain anoxia tolerance. Root tip survival is short‐term, and thereafter, seminal root re‐growth upon re‐aeration is limited. Genotypes differ in adventitious root numbers and in aerenchyma formation within these roots, resulting in varying waterlogging tolerances. Root extension is restricted by capacity for internal O₂ movement to the apex. Sub‐optimal O₂ restricts root N uptake and translocation to the shoots, with N deficiency causing reduced shoot growth and grain yield. Although photosynthesis declines, sugars typically accumulate in shoots of waterlogged plants. Mn or Fe toxicity might occur in shoots of wheat on strongly acidic soils, but probably not more widely. Future breeding for waterlogging tolerance should focus on root internal aeration and better N‐use efficiency; exploiting the genetic diversity in wheat for these and other traits should enable improvement of waterlogging tolerance.     

Do Geographically Isolated Grasslands Follow the Principle of Island Biogeography in a Landscape Scale? Taking Poyang Lake Grassland as an Example

As one of the basic theories of biodiversity conservation, island biogeography has been widely accepted in the past decades. Originally, island biogeography was put forward and applied in oceanic environments. But later on, it was found out that the application was not only limited to oceanic islands, but also in terrestrial environments with relatively isolated conditions. In terms of biodiversity level, island biogeography generally focuses on a small scale, such as species diversity and genetic diversity. The studies of biodiversity on a large-scale based on island biogeography, such as ecosystem and landscape scales, were seldomly conducted. Taking Poyang Lake, the largest fresh water lake in China as case study area, 30 grasslands were randomly selected to study whether island biogeography can be applied to grasslands at a landscape level from three island attributes (area, distance and shape), and the most important ecological variable (flooding) in Poyang Lake. The results showed that in general, grasslands have the property of an island, and follow the basic principle of island biogeography. We found the area and flooding duration were the two most important determinants of landscape diversity. There was a significant positive correlation between the grassland area and the landscape diversity, which could be well expressed by logarithmic function model (R² = 0.73). There was a negative correlation between flooding duration and landscape diversity, which could be described by an inverse model (R² = 0.206). The distance to mainland and the shape of grassland were correlated with landscape diversity, but the fitting result of the models was not as good as expected. The possible reason could be that Poyang Lake is a seasonal lake, the water level varies with hydrological conditions, so that the grasslands are not strongly isolated and their shape is not stable enough required by island biogeography. Furthermore, it indicates that besides area, distance and shape attributes, flooding strongly affects the biodiversity of grassland vegetation, and should not be ignored when applying island biogeography theory to Poyang Lake. This study is expected to be a supplement for island biogeography in terrestrial environments, and the results are expected to benefit for the biodiversity conservation in Poyang Lake.     

Effects of anoxia and flooding on alcohol dehydrogenase in roots of Glyceria maxima and Pisum sativum

Flood tolerant Glyceria maxima and intolerant Pisum sativum were compared in respect of the effects of anoxia and flooding on the maximum catalytic activities of alcohol dehydrogenase in their roots. Small (<73%) increases in enzyme activity occurred when excised roots of both species were incubated in nitrogen for up to 2 days. Further incubation in nitrogen rapidly and permanently damaged the roots of both species. Enzyme activity in flooded roots of Glyceria was about double that in corresponding non-flooded roots. A marginally greater difference was found for roots of Pisum. It was concluded that the two species respond so similarly to the above treatments that variation in the extent of induction of alcohol dehydrogenase is unlikely to be a significant factor in determining their ability to tolerate flooding.     

黄河三角洲滨海湿地潮沟分布与植被覆盖度的关系

基于黄河三角洲滨海湿地2005、2010与2017年3个时期的Landsat TM/OLI影像,利用遥感和地理信息技术,对黄河三角洲滨海湿地的潮沟与植被覆盖度的分布格局与动态变化进行了分析,并运用网格搜索法,对研究区的潮沟与植被覆盖度进行相关分析。结果表明:(1) 2005—2017年黄河三角洲滨海湿地植被覆盖度不断提高,低植被覆盖度的面积减少了233.73 km2,高植被覆盖度的面积增加了165.85 km2;(2) 2005—2017年黄河三角洲滨海湿地的潮沟长度和面积不断增加,频数也在增加,其中2017年滨海湿地东南部的潮沟长度达到216.13 km,面积为22.23 km2,长度和面积分别比2005年增加了36.91%和49%;(3) 2005—2017年黄河三角洲潮沟分布与植被覆盖度呈负相关,其中2010年、2017年的潮沟与植被覆盖度呈显著相关(P<0.05),这说明黄河三角洲的潮沟的空间分布与区域植被的长势密切相关。     

New Role for an Old Rule: N-end Rule-Mediated Degradation of Ethylene Responsive Factor Proteins Governs Low Oxygen Response in Plants

The N-end rule pathway regulates protein degradation, which depends on exposed N-terminal sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In plants, conserved and specific enzymes stimulate selective proteolysis. Although a number of developmental and growth phenotypes have been reported for mutants in the N-end rule, its function has remained unrelated to specific physiological pathways. The first report of the direct involvement of the N-end rule in stress responses focused on hypoxic signaling and how the oxygen-dependent oxidation of cystein promotes the N-end rule-mediated degradation of ethylene responsive factor (ERF)-VII proteins, the master regulators of anaerobic responses. It has beensuggested that plants have evolved specific mechanisms to tune ERF-VII availability in the nucleus. In this review, we speculate that ERF-VII proteins are reversibly protected from degradation via membrane sequestration. The oxidative response in plants subjected to anoxic conditions suggests that reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species) may interact or interfere with the N-end rule pathway-mediated response to hypoxia.     

Composition and seasonal fluctuations of the ichthyoplankton community in a shallow tidal channel of Cadiz Bay (S.W. Spain)

The composition and seasonal variation of the ichthyoplankton community in a shallow tidal channel in Cadiz Bay was studied for 5 years (1984 1988), taking fortnightly samples with a conical tide-strained net (0.5 mm mesh). Thirty-nine species belonging to 21 families of teleosts were caught. Four species ( Pomutoschistus microps Kroyer, Atherina hoyeri Risso, Liza rumuda Risso and Lizu a lira Ia Risso) totalled more than 90% of the annual ichthyoplankton abundance. Three species, assumed to be permanent residents, dominated the number offish (837%), and were represented by all their developing stages; 26 species (66.7%) were temporary residents, contributing 17.2% to the total abundance and were represented only by early developing stages; the remaining 10 species were classified as rare. Monthly numbers of species and individuals showed seasonal variation with a main annual peak in spring and in late spring-early summer, respectively. The diversity (H') and evenness (S) indices of this community were low (0.13 to 1.83 and 0.03 to 0.71. respectively), with higher values in winter and late summer, and both were significantly correlated with the log-transformed density of temporary residents (r = 0.43 and 0.41, respectively; P<0.0l) and permanent residents (r=−0.75 and −0.79, respectively; P<0.01). Multivariate classification analysis of samples revealed that similar cyclical changes were taking place in the structure of this ichthyoplankton community every year; three periods could be differentiated: (1) a cool period of low fish density but relatively high diversity; (2) moderate temperature and salinity with high numbers of species and density but low diversity and (3) a warm period of moderate diversity and fish density.     

Responses of Woody Plants To Human-Induced Environmental Stresses: Issues,Problems, and Strategies for Alleviating Stress

Forest ecosystems are enormously important to mankind.They not only supply wood,foods,medicines,waxes,oils,gums,resins and tannins,but they also regulate climate, hydrology,mineral cycling,soil erosion,and cleansing of air and water.A variety of natural and human-induced environmental stresses have both beneficial and harmful effects on forest ecosystems.However,human-induced stresses are much more harmful than naturally induced disturbances.Human-induced stresses,which often are catastrophic although avoidable,include defor estation,fire,pollution,flooding,and soil compaction.Such stresses variously injure woody plants,impede vegetative and reproductive growth,and induce mortality,largely by causing physiological dysfunction in plants.Human-induced environmental stresses have led to decimation of forest ecosystems,loss of biodiversity,forest declines,and potential global warming. Short-rotation plantations,especially in the tropics,are increasing rapidly,largely to produce wood quickly.Plantations also stabilize soil,prevent water runoff,provide shelter from wind and heat,and relieve pressure for exploiting natural forests.However,plantations alone are unlikely to satisfy society 's growing needs for the products and services that can be provided by woody plant ecosystems.Hence,several multiple concurrent strategies are urgently needed to lessen the many destructive effects of human-induced environmental stresses on woody plants.These include not only the expansion of plantations but also of agroferestry systems and forest reserves as well as the development of innovative silvicultural techniques with a focus on the preservation of natural forests.Conserving sustainability of natural forests will require a land ethic as prelude to understanding the functioning of forest ecosystems,ecological and physiological impacts of disturbances on ecosystems,and the processes involved in recovery of disturbed ecosystems. Many of the harmful effects of pollution,fire,flooding,and soil compaction can be abated by judicious planning to create and perpetuate the critical components of forest stand structure and species composition.Strategies for continuous production of the products and services that can be supplied by woody plants will need to be reinforced by expanded long-term research and close cooperation among forest biologists,social scientists,economists,and regulatory government agencies.     

Plant defense after flooding

Since the first study of hypoxic response in plants with cDNA microarray in 2002, the number of hypoxia-responsive genes has grown to more than 2000. However, to date, only small numbers of hypoxia-responsive genes are known to confer hypoxic resistance. Most investigations in this area have focused on identifying which genes are responsive and then characterized how these genes are induced during hypoxia, but the roles of numerous genes in hypoxic response are still unknown. In our recent study, we demonstrated that a group of genes are induced by submergence to trigger plant immunity, which is a response to protect plants against a higher probability of pathogen infection during or after flooding. This work offered a brand new perspective, i.e., that hypoxia-responsive genes can be induced for reasons other than conferring hypoxic resistance. Possible reasons why these responses were triggered are discussed herein.     

三峡水库坝下江心洲植物群落及其性状对不同水淹强度的响应

三峡水库的运行,改变了其坝下游的水沙情势,使坝下游沙洲生境呈现出明显的水淹强度梯度变化。阐明这一梯度变化下沙洲植被组成、分布和性状结构特征,是理解植被与沙洲稳定关系的基础,更是阐明三峡工程对长江中下游地区生态环境影响的核心内容之一。选取上荆江河段第一个江心洲-太平口心滩作为研究样地,通过植被组成和分布特征的调查,对不同水淹强度下群落物种组成、多样性和功能特征进行了深入分析。结果表明：太平口心滩植被组成以草本植物为主,稀布小型灌木川三蕊柳。调查共记录物种21科33属39种,以禾本科和菊科植物为主要优势种。轻微（20-40 d）和极强水淹强度（100+d）条件下的生境物种组成同其他水淹强度生境具有显著性差异,轻微水淹强度下牛鞭草和节节草为主要优势种,极强水淹强度下虉草为主要优势种。不同水淹强度下物种多样性指数差异显著,功能多样性指数和生物多样性指数趋势基本一致。随着水淹时间的延长,植被更倾向于表现出花果期位于出露期、植株高度更加低矮、须根系、进行营养繁殖的功能性状。江心洲植被的群落结构和功能性状特征都在水淹梯度下呈现出明显的梯度变化特征。这些研究结果表明水淹强度的梯度变化是沙洲植物群落变化的重要驱动因子,为进一步研究沙洲植物群落动态变化以及沙洲植被协同演替机制,明晰大坝影响下的生态环境变化提供重要依据。     

Effects of flooding on carbohydrate and ABA levels in roots and shoots of alfalfa

Alfalfa is sensitive to waterlogging, and its yields are significantly reduced under this condition. We investigated the effects of soil flooding on free abscisic acid (ABA) accumulation in shoots and roots of alfalfa in relation to plant growth and stomatal conductance responses. The production of dry matter in alfalfa was significantly affected by flooding mainly as a result of a rapid reduction in root growth. Shoot dry matter accumulation was maintained during the first 10 d of treatment and started to decline thereafter. Foliar concentration of the major mineral elements (N, P, K) was reduced by flooding, whereas only K concentration decreased in roots of flooded plants. Regrowth declined with duration of flooding and was less than 50% of controls after 2 weeks. While no changes in ABA concentration could be detected in flooded roots, an increase was noted within a few days in leaves when compared to unflooded controls. This increase in free ABA coincided with the accumulation of large quantities of starch in leaves and a rapid decline in leaf stomatal conductance. Our results support the suggestion that leaf ABA originates from the leaf itself and may be accumulating along with starch as a result of reduced translocation to the roots. Our observation of large accumulations of sucrose in flooded roots agrees with previous reports that supply of carbohydrates is not a limiting factor to root anaerobic metabolism in flooded alfalfa.