Delimitation of the maritime boundary in the gulf of Maine area

The compulsory dispute settlement regime included in the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention is recognized as one of the most comprehensive in a modern international convention. Yet, in the recent application of this regime, the question has arisen as to whether the procedural prerequisites associated with the LOS Convention's compulsory dispute settlement mechanism are so arduous as to avoid binding and compulsory jurisdiction in most instances. This article addresses that question by examining, in particular, the reasoning of the Southern Bluefin Tuna arbitration tribunal, which found Article 281 of Section 1 of the LOS Convention to bar jurisdiction to the compulsory dispute settlement mechanism prescribed by the Convention, and offers suggestions as to how states might distinguish or overcome the barriers imposed by the Southern Bluefin Tuna tribunal in future cases.     

Submarine Communications Cables and Law of the Sea: Problems in Law and Practice

Submarine communications cables laid on the seabed of the ocean are the foundation of the world's international telecommunications network. International law, in particular, the law of the sea, has recognized the freedom to lay submarine cables and perform associated operations and has placed certain obligations on states related to the protection of submarine cables. This article examines the international law with respect to submarine cables and discusses the various problems with both the law and state practice on submarine cables. It argues that these problems are illustrations of the traditional challenges that face the law of the sea; that is, the balancing and accommodation of competing uses of ocean space. It concludes that an important step toward resolving these problems is enhanced consultation and cooperation between cable companies and governments and that efforts should focus on creating such mechanisms.     

Law of the Sea Issues Between the United States and East Asian States

The United States is the sole superpower in the contemporary world and its role in the development of the law of the sea cannot be ignored. Although having not yet acceded to the U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea, the United States has contributed to the development of the international law of the sea in numerous ways, including responding to the so-called excessive maritime claims in East Asia and creating new rules of maritime enforcement. This article assesses this recent U.S. practice.     

The ductal origin of structural and functional heterogeneity between pancreatic islets

Islets form in the pancreas after the first endocrine cells have arisen as either single cells or small cell clusters in the epithelial cords. These cords constitute the developing pancreas in one of its earliest recognizable stages. Islet formation begins at the time the cords transform into a branching ductal system, continues while the ductal system expands, and finally stops before the exocrine tissue of ducts and acini reaches its final expansion. Thus, islets continuously arise from founder cells located in the branching and ramifying ducts. Islets arising from proximal duct cells locate between the exocrine lobules, develop strong autonomic and sensory innervations, and pass their blood to efferent veins (insulo-venous efferent system). Islets arising from cells of more distal ducts locate within the exocrine lobules, respond to nerve impulses ending at neighbouring blood vessels, and pass their blood to the surrounding acini (insulo-acinar portal system). Consequently, the section of the ductal system from which an islet arises determines to a large extent its future neighbouring tissue, architecture, properties, and functions. We note that islets interlobular in position are frequently found in rodents (rats and mice), whereas intralobularly-located, peripheral duct islets prevail in humans and cattle. Also, we expound on bovine foetal Laguesse islets as a prominent foetal type of type 1 interlobular neuro-insular complexes, similar to neuro-insular associations frequently found in rodents. Finally, we consider the probable physiological and pathophysiological implications of the different islet positions within and between species.     

The case in international law for Canada's extension of fisheries jurisdiction beyond 200 miles

In March 1995, Canadian fisheries authorities boarded and arrested the Spanish fishing vessel, Estai, outside the Canadian 200‐mile zone on the Grand Banks, an event that served to focus world attention on a dispute that had its origins in the failure of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to implement an effective conservation and management regime for fish stocks on the high seas, particularly with respect to fish stocks that straddle coastal states’ exclusive economic zones. This article examines the origins of the dispute, including the allegations relating to overfishing of North Atlantic Fisheries Organization‐recommended quotas, the background to the vessel's arrest, and the subsequent confrontation that occurred, both at diplomatic levels and on the high seas, between Canada and the European Union. An analysis is made of the case in international law for Canada's extension of jurisdiction beyond 200 miles pursuant to the provisions of Section 5 of the Coastal Fisheries Protection Act. Finally, the article examines the implications of the recently concluded Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks for disputes of the kind that arose in the present case.     

The politics of a new legal order for fisheries

Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) Fishing is considered a major threat to high seas fish stocks. Each of the the international regional fishery management organizations (RFMOs) are combating some form of IUU fishing and this led the Food and Agriculture Oranization of the United Nations (FAO) to adopt the International Plan of Action to Deter, Prevent and Eliminate IUU Fishing (IPOA-IUU). This article will analyze the issues involved with IUU fishing, examine the recommendations in the IPOA, and consider examples of successful management and enforcement measures in use by states and RFMOs. Finally, recent developments in China will be viewed as an example of how international cooperation is contagious.     

Climate Change and the Use of the Dispute Settlement Regime of the Law of the Sea Convention

This article explores the connection between obligations to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions under the climate change regime and obligations to protect the marine environment under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Within the context of the state of the science on the links between climate change and the marine environment, the article considers whether the emission of greenhouse gases as a result of human activity constitutes a violation of various obligations under the UNCLOS. Having identified a number of possible violations, the article proceeds to consider the application of the binding dispute settlement process under the UNCLOS and the possibility of a successful claim.     

Ocean energy and the law of the sea: The need for a protocol

Although fossil fuels are the overwhelming source of energy for the world, and will continue to be so for the foreseeable future, demographic, environmental, political, and economic factors indicate that interest in alternative, renewable sources of energy will grow. There is a need for both global and national policies on ocean energy management. In particular, coastal states and the energy industry would benefit from guidelines that helped to create a predictable, stable environment in which long‐term, high‐cost research, development, and investment decisions could be made with confidence. Coastal states have jurisdiction over the maritime zones most relevant to energy production, but many lack the expertise and funds to develop this potential source. Industry must operate within the control of coastal states and will not be served well by a plethora of differing legal interpretations and unilaterally imposed restrictions and obligations from state to state. An Ocean Energy Protocol to the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea would afford governments and industry the opportunity to clarify their respective obligations and address particular interests for mutual benefit.     

The shift from low to high non-structural protein 1 expression in rotavirus-infected MA-104 cells

A hallmark of group/species A rotavirus (RVA) replication in MA-104 cells is the logarithmic increase in viral mRNAs that occurs four-12 h post-infection. Viral protein synthesis typically lags closely behind mRNA synthesis but continues after mRNA levels plateau. However, RVA non-structural protein 1 (NSP1) is present at very low levels throughout viral replication despite showing robust protein synthesis. NSP1 has the contrasting properties of being susceptible to proteasomal degradation, but being stabilised against proteasomal degradation by viral proteins and/or viral mRNAs. We aimed to determine the kinetics of the accumulation and intracellular distribution of NSP1 in MA-104 cells infected with rhesus rotavirus (RRV). NSP1 preferentially localises to the perinuclear region of the cytoplasm of infected cells, forming abundant granules that are heterogeneous in size. Late in infection, large NSP1 granules predominate, coincident with a shift from low to high NSP1 expression levels. Our results indicate that rotavirus NSP1 is a late viral protein in MA-104 cells infected with RRV, presumably as a result of altered protein turnover.     

Mitochondrial DNA phylogeography of the Cotesia flavipes complex of parasitic wasps (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

The Cotesia flavipes species complex of parasitic wasps are economically important worldwide for the biological control of lepidopteran stem borers. The complex currently comprises three species: Cotesia flavipes Cameron, C. sesamiae (Cameron) and C. chilonis (Matsumura) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), which appear morphologically similar. Despite their economic importance, little is known about the genetic diversity and phylogeography of these parasitoids. Differences in the biology of geographic populations have generally been interpreted as genetic divergence among strains, but direct genetic evidence is lacking. In Australia, several stem borer pests in neighbouring countries have been identified as significant threats to the sugar industry. However, the status of C. flavipes in Australia is unknown. To examine the genetic variation among worldwide populations of the C. flavipes complex and investigate the status of the Australian C. flavipes-like species, partial sequence data were generated for mitochondrial gene regions, 16S rRNA and COI. Parsimony, minimum evolution and Bayesian analyses based on 21 geographic populations of the complex and four outgroups supported the monophyly of the complex and the existence of genetically divergent populations of C. flavipes and C. sesamiae. The geographically isolated Australian haplotypes formed a distinct lineage within the complex and were ~3.0% divergent from the other species. The results indicated that historical biogeographic barriers and recent biological control introductions play an important role in structuring lineages within these species. This study provides a phylogeographical context for examining adaptive evolution and host range within biologically divergent strains of the C. flavipes complex.