Sexually mature and immature yearling male European ground squirrels: a comparison of behavioral and physiological parameters

Early puberty may increase lifetime reproductive success, but may also entail diverse costs. In male European ground squirrels (Spermophilus citellus), age at sexual maturity varies among individuals. We compared sexually active and inactive yearling males under standardized conditions in outdoor enclosures. Non-reproductive yearling males hibernated significantly longer than mature males and emerged when the mating period had already started. Testosterone concentrations peaked in the precocious males during premating and mating, and were depressed in the non-reproductive individuals throughout the study period. Emergence body mass was similar in both groups, although sexually immature males were significantly heavier at the end of the active season. Additionally, non-reproductive yearlings grew faster than precocious individuals. Male–male aggression peaked during mating and the following 4 weeks. Intense aggressive interactions like chases and fights were mostly initiated by reproductive males and were directed towards mature competitors. Aggressive behavior in immature males was mainly expressed as spatial displacements. Non-agonistic interactions with females were only observed in sexually active males. Concentrations of fecal cortisol metabolites did not differ between the two male groups and were elevated in the second half of the active season. Leucocyte numbers were reduced during mating in mature males, whereas in immature animals, cell numbers did not change significantly. Our results indicate that early puberty in European ground squirrels involves lower growth rates, high intrasexual aggression, lower prehibernatory body mass, and probably worse immunological condition during mating.     

Age-dependent use of local and global landmarks during escape: experiments using Columbian ground squirrels

How animals utilize their space often changes during ontogeny, perhaps resulting from alternative use of orientation mechanisms. This study investigated whether landmark-based navigation mechanisms were age-dependent in Columbian ground squirrels (Spermophilus columbianus). In field tests, young (1-2 years old) and adult (3-6 years old) animals had to find an escape burrow when either local, global, or both types of landmarks were obstructed. The comparison of escape times between age groups revealed that adult squirrels found escape burrow faster than young animals if global landmarks were available. However, if only local landmarks were present, young squirrels outperformed older animals. The comparison of escape time within each age group showed that obstruction of global or local landmarks lengthened escape time of adult squirrels. In contrast, young animals had longer escapes only when local landmarks were obstructed. The results suggested that the use of different types of landmarks was age specific.     

Five-year study of the genetic structure and demography of two subpopulations of the Japanese squirrel (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sciurus lis</Emphasis>) in a continuous forest and an isolated woodlot

The Japanese squirrel (Sciurus lis) is endemic to Honshu and Shikoku, Japan. In suburban environments this squirrel has tended to disappear from smaller and/or more isolated woodlots. In this study, genetic structure was compared from 1999 to 2004 for two subpopulations, one in a continuous mountain forest of western Tokyo and the other in a neighbouring woodlot isolated by a busy road. By sequencing 434 bp of the mitochondrial DNA control region of all 69 squirrels living in the two habitats, nine haplotypes were detected. Both the number of haplotypes and their genetic diversity were lower in the isolated woodlot (5 and 0.62, respectively) than in the continuous forest (8 and 0.79). Yearly comparisons revealed that only two to three haplotypes occurred simultaneously in the isolated woodlot whereas four to six were always found in the continuous forest, although the number of resident squirrels per year did not differ between the two sites. Haplotype dynamics revealed that the female population in the isolated woodlot was in a monotypic state for over two years before immigration of females with different haplotypes occurred. In the isolated woodlot immigration was thus restricted and turnover was lower, particularly among females. Such demographic factors seem to maintain the lower genetic diversity of the isolated subpopulation.     

冬眠对达乌尔黄鼠盲肠菌群的影响

冬眠哺乳动物的肠道微生物会发生季节性变化,同时在冬眠期间动物处于禁食状态,对肠道微生物的多样性和组成也产生影响。本研究通过16S rRNA基因高通量测序分析达乌尔黄鼠育肥阶段 (起始育肥期、快速育肥期、育肥完成期) 和冬眠阶段 (冬眠早期、冬眠晚期、出眠期) 共6个时期盲肠菌群的多样性、组成和功能,并通过冗余分析 (RDA) 探究其生理特征与菌群组成和功能之间的关系,揭示达乌尔黄鼠盲肠菌群的季节性变化。菌群组成的分析显示达乌尔黄鼠盲肠菌群主要由厚壁菌门 (Firmicutes)、拟杆菌门 (Bacteroidetes) 和疣微菌门 (Verrucomicrobia) 组成。与其他时期相比,冬眠早期厚壁菌门的相对丰度减少,拟杆菌门和疣微菌门的相对丰度增加。在Alpha多样性中,起始育肥期、快速育肥期和冬眠早期的Chao1和ACE指数显著低于出眠期,育肥完成期的Simpson指数显著低于快速育肥期 (P < 0.05) 。通过加权和非加权的UniFrac距离矩阵的主坐标分析发现盲肠菌群均显示出了明显的季节性聚类。PICRUSt分析中,丁酸代谢等代谢通路在育肥阶段富集,冬眠阶段集中在氮代谢等相关通路中。RDA分析显示达乌尔黄鼠不同时期的生理特征与其盲肠菌群的组成和功能显著相关。本研究表明,冬眠使达乌尔黄鼠盲肠菌群的多样性和相对丰度发生改变,盲肠菌群组成和功能的变化调节了达乌尔黄鼠的生理代谢,使达乌尔黄鼠适应季节性的环境变化。     

A novel form of oxytocin in New World monkeys

Oxytocin is widely believed to be present and structurally identical in all placental mammals. Here, we report that multiple species of New World monkeys possess a novel form of oxytocin, [P8] oxytocin. This mutation arises from a substitution of a leucine to a proline in amino acid position 8. Further analysis of this mutation in Saimiri sciureus (squirrel monkey) indicates that [P8] oxytocin is transcribed and translated properly. This mutation is specific to oxytocin, as the peptide sequence for arginine vasopressin, a structurally related nonapeptide, is unaltered. These findings dispel the notion that all placental mammals possess a 'universal' oxytocin sequence, and highlight the need for research on the functional significance of this novel nonapeptide in New World monkeys.     

Geographical distance and physical barriers shape the genetic structure of Eurasian red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) in the Italian Alps

Red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) are widely distributed throughout Eurasia, occurring in many types of coniferous and mixed-deciduous forests. In fragmented landscapes, small and partly isolated populations with low immigration rates show reduced genetic diversity, but reforestation can increase gene flow and restore levels of genetic variation in a few decades. No studies have so far investigated the genetic structure of red squirrel in large, continuous forests. The Italian Alps are presently characterized by almost continuous, recently reconnected forest habitats, that were affected by deep landscape changes during last glaciations but remained mostly unchanged between 10 000 and 200 years bp, when forest cover was heavily reduced. In this study we analyse patterns of genetic variability of red squirrels in and between seven sites distributed over 250 km of Alpine habitat, using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and microsatellites. We use isolation-by-distance (IBD) models to investigate the relative importance that past (Pleistocene glaciations) and recent (fragmentation, bottlenecks) events had on the present genetic situation. Both nuclear and mtDNA data indicate a significant differentiation among study sites and a significant correlation between genetic and geographical distance only over a large scale. No recent bottlenecks are recorded through microsatellites and demographic models strongly support equilibrium between gene flow and drift; however, mtDNA suggests that there may have been local demographic crashes, probably in correspondence with the 19th-century forest fragmentation. These findings indicate that local landscape factors other than geographical distance per se, such as barriers of unsuitable habitat, affect gene flow and determine differentiation.     

Phylogeography of the Russian flying squirrel (Pteromys volans): implication of refugia theory in arboreal small mammal of Eurasia

A phylogeographical study of the Russian (Siberian) flying squirrel (Pteromys volans) was carried out using the complete mitochondrial (mt) cytochrome b gene sequences with special reference to the refugia theory for the arboreal traits of this species. We examined 31 specimens from 24 localities, resulting in 28 haplotypes. One breeding specimen with a unique haplotype from Hokkaido, Japan was included in the phylogenetic analysis. There were three mtDNA lineages: Hokkaido, Far Eastern, and northern Eurasia. Divergence data among lineages demonstrated that the Hokkaido group separated from the other groups during the Holsteinian interglacial. The phylogeographical pattern of P. volans is different from that previously reported for terrestrial rodents associated with treeless habitats. Unlike grasslands, forests decreased during glaciation and moved southward because of the cold and arid environmental conditions. The glacial refugia of P. volans would have been associated with forest dynamics in the Pleistocene.