An Infrastructure to Advance the Scholarly Work of Staff Nurses

The traditional role of the acute care staff nurse is changing. The new norm establishes an expectation that staff nurses base their practice on best evidence. When evidence is lacking, nurses are charged with using the research process to generate and disseminate new knowledge. This article describes the critical forces behind the transformation of this role and the organizational mission, culture, and capacity required to support practice that is based on science. The vital role of senior nursing leaders, the nurse researcher, and the nursing research committee within the context of a collaborative governance structure is highlighted. Several well-known, evidence-based practice models are presented. Finally, there is a discussion of the infrastructure created by Yale-New Haven Hospital to advance the scholarly work of the nursing staff.     

Fungal endophyte negative effects on herbivory are enhanced on intact plants and maintained in a subsequent generation

1. Fungal endophytes are ubiquitous associates of virtually all plant species. Although many studies have focused on the role of these microorganisms as mediators of plant–herbivore interactions, these studies have usually been conducted using short‐term experiments. 2. Truly effective defences against herbivores may require normal functioning of the plant, as excised leaves may be less resistant as compared with those still attached to the plant. Yet, most studies investigating possible effects of endophytes in conferring host resistance to herbivores have been conducted with plant parts rather than intact plants. 3. Using the root endophytic fungus (Acremonium strictum)—broad bean (Vicia faba)—generalist herbivore (Helicoverpa armigera) model, we conducted experiments to examine whether endophyte effects on herbivory would depend on the experimental setting used in the investigation and whether they would translate into a subsequent generation of the herbivore. 4. Acremonium strictum negative effects on the fitness of H. armigera first generation were more evident when the larvae foraged freely on inoculated intact whole plants than when offered leaf discs of inoculated plants. Furthermore, these effects were carried over into H. armigera second generation reared on an artificial diet. 5. Acremonium strictum could not be re‐isolated from V. faba leaves; hence direct contact between the endophyte and the insect could be excluded. Alternatively, loss of volatiles or inhibitory effects of compounds that were stronger in situ might have caused changes in larval feeding and performance on leaf discs as compared with intact plants, regardless of infection status. 6. We suggest that the reduction in fitness parameters of H. armigera across two generations is caused indirectly via an endophyte‐triggered reduction in plant quality.     

Intensive care triage: priority should be independent of whether patients are already receiving intensive care

Intensive care units (ICUs) are not always able to admit all patients who would benefit from intensive care. Pressure on ICU beds is likely to be particularly high during times of epidemics such as might arise in the case of swine influenza. In making choices as to which patients to admit, the key US guidelines state that significant priority should be given to the interests of patients who are already in the ICU over the interests of patients who would benefit from intensive care but who have not been admitted. We examine four reasons that in principle might justify such a prioritization rule and conclude that none is convincing. We argue that the current location of patients should not, in principle, affect their priority for intensive care. We show, however, that under some but not all circumstances, maximizing lives saved by intensive care might require continuing to treat in the ICU a patient already admitted rather than transferring that patient out of the unit in order to admit a sicker patient who would also benefit more from intensive care. We conclude that further modelling is required in order to clarify what practical policies would maximize lives saved by intensive care.     

Integrating spatially explicit habitat projections into extinction risk assessments: a reassessment of Amazonian avifauna incorporating projected deforestation

Aim We aimed to complete the first systematic assessment of extinction risk based on projected population declines derived from spatially explicit habitat projections for any taxonomic group at a regional scale, to use the outputs to ascertain the efficacy of an existing protected area network in covering species of conservation concern, and identify gaps therein. Location This study focused on Amazonia; an area of exceptional biodiversity, currently experiencing the highest absolute rate of forest loss globally but where the proportion of species assessed as ‘threatened’ on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List in the region is below global averages. Methods For all forest‐dependent Amazonian bird species (814), we revised extinction risk estimates by combining data from a spatially explicit deforestation model with generation length estimates. By overlaying distribution maps for these revised threatened species, we identified crisis areas (areas of projected deforestation supporting the highest numbers of threatened species), refugia (areas projected to retain forest supporting the highest numbers of threatened species) and areas of high irreplaceability: short‐ and long‐term priorities for new protected areas (PAs). Results The number of species qualifying as threatened rose substantially from 24 (3%) to 64–92 (8–11%). Areas of particular concern are the crisis and highly irreplaceable areas within the ‘arc of deforestation’ in the southern Brazilian Amazon states of Rondônia, Mato Grosso and Pará. Main conclusions Through a novel application of the IUCN Red List criteria, we present a spatially accurate rendering of the extinction risks of Amazonian birds. Important areas in the Amazon are not secure. We identify priorities for expansion of the PAs network and key locations where protection should be enforced. We recommend a collaborative approach employing our methods to repeat this process for other taxonomic groups.     

Where is the Evidence for Assessing Evidence‐Based Restoration? Comments on Ntshotsho et al. (2010)

In their article “Assessing the evidence base for restoration in South Africa,” Ntshotsho et al. attempt to determine whether restoration in South Africa is evidence based by reporting on 10 projects' baseline data collection, goal setting, and monitoring. However, their contribution suffers from two major constraints. First, they confuse assessing the evidence base with assessing whether restoration is evidence based. Truly, assessing the evidence base would entail a systematic review of the quantity and quality of information available as well as the conclusions supported, perhaps in a meta‐analytical framework. Determining if restoration is evidence based would require a survey of project managers to evaluate if they take decisions based on scientific information. Second, Ntshotsho et al. do not clearly distinguish successfully achieving restoration project goals from successfully restoring ecosystems. They largely focus on projects' socioeconomic goals without emphasizing that these goals are, by definition, secondary to ecological goals in determining restoration success. Thus, Ntshotsho et al. provide neither a sound assessment of the evidence base for restoration nor whether restoration is evidence based. To evaluate and encourage evidence‐based restoration in South Africa, we recommend a simple assessment of the basis on which restoration managers make decisions, identification of factors precluding evidence‐based decision‐making, and development of platforms to evaluate the data collected in restoration programs to generate an evidence base from which to make defendable decisions.     

Maximum Residue Levels: Fact or Fiction?

Maximum residue levels (MRLs) are trading standards that represent the maximum residue that could be found if a crop protection product (CPP) is applied according to critical good agricultural practice (cGAP). Foodstuffs are monitored for MRL compliance and exceedence can have economic, social and political consequences. There is a trade-off when calculating MRLs, as low MRLs prevent misuse of CPPs and high MRLs prevent an ‘unlucky’ farmer exceeding the MRL by chance. Chance exceedence has not been previously investigated despite the high probability of exceedence due to small data sets and calculation method. In this study, MRL calculation methods were investigated and policy for using these methods to control chance exceedence was defined. The shape and parameters of the residue distribution, LOQ and number of trials all affected the accuracy and precision of the estimated MRL. The two European methods were least accurate and precise at small numbers of trials and high CVs, with up to four different MRLs possible. Eight to 16 trials gave the best estimate of the MRL, but exceedence by chance could occur in up to 45% of samples. Policy was defined for using existing methods, and involved calculation of the MRL by both methods and taking the highest.     

Feature-short and feature-long discrimination learning in the pigeon: conditional control of a two-event temporal map

Eight pigeons were trained to peck an illuminated target key on discrete-trial fixed-interval schedules of reinforcement by food. Four birds were exposed to a feature-short (FS) task where a feature light signaled shortening of the forthcoming target-outcome interval from 30 to 15s, while the other four birds were exposed to a feature-long (FL) task where a feature light signaled extension of the forthcoming target-outcome interval from 15 to 30s. The discrimination performance measured by differential temporal distributions of pecks between featured and non-featured target trials suggested that the target-food temporal map was under conditional control of the feature light in both groups. The FS discrimination was more difficult to learn than the FL discrimination. This FS inferiority implies that our birds did not resort on the simple temporal discrimination by timing from the trial onset. The simple temporal discrimination account was also negated by the finding that increasing the feature-target gap did not have a predicted effect on the response distribution.     

Is the global conservation status assessment of a threatened taxon a utopia?

The signatory countries of the Convention on Biological Diversity agreed to significantly reduce the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010. How will we know, however, if we have achieved this goal? Eight groups of hindrances in evaluating the global conservation status of threatened taxon are identified: (1) the extreme heterogeneity and (2) restricted availability of relevant data; (3) the uncertainty in species number and taxonomic division of the given taxon (Linnean shortfall); (4) the fragmentary distribution knowledge (Wallacean shortfall); (5) the incomplete or incorrect red-listing across the whole distribution area; (6) the lack of homogeneous and exhaustive population trend data; (7) the threat knowledge shortfall; (8) the incomplete general biological knowledge on a given taxon. The Linnean and Wallacean shortfalls lay the foundation of all other hindrances. So long as this dramatic shortfall situation does not change, the adequate assessment of the global status for overwhelming majority of extant taxa will remain a utopia.     

中国樱桃种内及与欧洲甜樱桃杂交的初步分析

以四川优良的中国樱桃栽培和野生种质及欧洲甜樱桃为试材进行杂交,对自交坐果率、杂交亲和性、杂交坐果率进行了调查和分析。结果表明:(1)中国樱桃自交亲和,欧洲甜樱桃自交不亲和;(2)杂交授粉2周后,各杂交组合表现出较高的杂交亲和性,坐果率为57.24~93.03%;5周后,各杂交组合表现出不同程度的杂种败育性,远缘杂交尤为明显;(3)在中国樱桃种内杂交中,以野生种质为父本的杂交坐果率极显著高于以栽培品种为父本的杂交坐果率;而远缘杂交中,以‘红灯’为母本,以中国樱桃栽培品种为父本的杂交坐果率显著高于以中国樱桃野生种质为父本的杂交坐果率;(4)受亲本影响,不同的杂交组合坐果率不同,受父本的影响极显著高于受母本的影响。基于上述结果,该研究进行了初步的分析和讨论。     

车桑子大孢子发生与雌配子体发育

采用常规石蜡切片法,对车桑子大孢子的发生和雌配子体的发育进行观察,探讨车桑子自然结籽率低的原因和明确其胚胎发育特征。结果表明:(1)车桑子花柱有花柱道,子房3室,中轴胎座,横生胚珠,每心室两枚胚珠,双珠被,厚珠心,无承珠盘。(2)位于珠心表皮细胞下的孢原细胞经平周分裂产生造孢细胞,造孢细胞发育为大孢子母细胞,大孢子母细胞经减数分裂形成线性四分体,靠近珠孔端3个大孢子退化消失,靠合点端大孢子发育为功能大孢子,大孢子发生类型为单孢子发生型。(3)单核胚囊经3次有丝分裂形成7细胞8核的成熟胚囊,胚囊发育类型为蓼型。(4)花器官形态的变化和大孢子发育过程有一定联系,可根据雌花形态特征大致判断大孢子发育时期。研究认为,车桑子雌配子体发育过程中出现的胚囊不中空、游离核不进一步细胞化等异常现象,可能是导致车桑子自然结籽率低的原因之一。