林冠截持降雨模型的初步研究

通过对林冠截持过程的研究,将单场降雨划分成很多个小的时段,顺序计算各小时段内降雨在林冠内的分配,建立了一个林冠降雨截持模型.模型考虑了冠层和树干干燥度对冠层雨期蒸发的影响,并在计算雨期蒸发时引入冠层叶面积指数、单位林地面积上树干表面积.运用模型对华北落叶松林的降雨截持进行模拟,结果表明,模拟穿透雨与实测穿透雨基本吻合,误差在±1 mm范围内,但在小降雨(＜6 mm)时模拟值偏低;树干茎流量模拟值偏低,茎流模拟相对误差随着降雨量增大而减小.同时模拟了穿透降雨的过程,结果与林内自动气象站实测穿透降雨的过程基本吻合,模拟效果较好.     

六盘山主要植被类型冠层截留特征

通过野外观测和模型模拟,研究了六盘山主要森林类型的冠层截留量、冠层截留容量和冠层截留模拟参数的变化.结果表明：六盘山主要森林类型的冠层截留率在8.59%～17.94%,穿透降雨率超过80%,树干茎流率在0.23%～3.10%;冠层截留容量在0.78～1.84 mm,其中叶截留容量在0.62～1.63 mm,枝干截留容量在0.13～0.29 mm,且针叶林的冠层截留容量高于阔叶林.考虑冠层叶面积指数的冠层截留改进模型较原有模型具有更好的模拟精度, 其中,研究区红桦林、华山松林、李灌丛和辽东栎-少脉椴混交林的模拟效果较好,辽东栎林、油松林和华西四蕊槭 石枣子灌丛模拟效果相对较差,这可能与冠层结构、叶面积指数以及降水特性等差异有关.     

中国森林生态系统林冠层降雨截留特征

森林生态系统作为陆地生态系统的主体,其发达的林冠层通过调节降水量、改变降水强度等深刻影响着流域全过程水文通量及水分输出。以中国广泛开展的典型森林降雨再分配过程的年尺度监测数据为基础,揭示中国不同类型森林生态系统的降雨再分配及林冠层降雨截留特征,阐明森林生态系统林冠层截留特征与降雨、植被要素的关系。结果表明:我国不同森林生态系统年穿透雨量处于141.4-2450.0 mm之间,年穿透雨率为36.3%-92.3%。5种典型森林生态系统多年平均穿透雨量((445.3±252.9)-(1230.6±479.6) mm)占同期多年平均降雨量的(72.6±9.2)%-(77.4±8.9)%。不同森林生态系统年树干茎流量介于0-508.2 mm之间,占同期年降雨量的0-25.8%。5种典型森林生态系统树干茎流量多年平均值((9.8±17.3)-(87.8±81.6) mm)占同期多年平均降雨量的(1.4±1.9)%-(5.4±4.6)%。不同森林生态系统林冠层年降雨截留范围在25.7-812.9 mm之间,占年降雨量的4.2%-55.6%。5种典型森林生态系统多年平均林冠截留量((154.2±81.6)-(392.2±203.5) mm)占同期年平均降雨量的(18.7±7.4)%-(25.9±8.3)%。进一步分析表明,我国森林生态系统穿透雨量、树干茎流量和林冠层截留量随观测区年降雨量的增加而呈显著增大(P<0.05),年穿透雨率、年树干茎流率随年降雨量的增加呈显著线性上升趋势(P<0.05),而年林冠截留率与年降雨量呈显著的负相关关系(P<0.01),降雨量、叶面积指数是深刻影响森林生态系统林冠层降雨截留率等特征的重要因素。整体上,不同类型森林生态系统林冠截留降雨能力存在明显差异,林冠层截留率突出表现为:落叶林大于常绿林、针叶林大于阔叶林。     

SWAT模型在天山林区林冠截留过程中的改进应用

林冠截留是森林生态水文的重要环节,SWAT （Soil and Water Assessment Tool）模型对其模拟过程还较为粗糙,为了在流域水文模拟中更精细的刻画林冠截留过程从而得到更佳的模拟结果,以SWAT模型为基础,使用半理论林冠截留模型（Gash模型）与SWAT模型进行耦合,以天山林区为研究区对SWAT模型林冠截留模块进行优化改进。通过对改进前后的模拟结果进行对比分析,结果表明：1） SWAT模型和SWAT-Gash模型的R²分别为0.59-0.83和0.65-0.86,NSE值分别为0.58-0.82和0.63-0.85,两种模型PBIAS为7.2%-17.1%,证明SWAT-Gash模型具有更好的适用性;2）相较于出山口径流数据,SWAT模型和SWAT-Gash模型的RMSD值分别为3.49-7.80 m³/s和3.22-4.68 m³/s,SWAT-Gash模型在校准期和验证期的皮尔逊相关系数分别为0.93和0.81,高于SWAT模型的0.91和0.77;3）基于分位数回归（QR）的不确定性分析表明,SWAT模型和SWAT-Gash模型验证期的P因子分别为0.93和0.96,R因子为1.26和1.19,95%不确定性置信区间平均宽度分别为13.50 m³/s和12.86 m³/s;4） SWAT模型与SWAT-Gash模型在验证期的月平均地表径流量分别为6.55 m³/s和8.50 m³/s,表明在该流域内原始SWAT模型会高估林冠截留量。以天山北坡中段林区为例对云杉森林的林冠截留进行精细化模拟,虽然对模型输入数据要求提高,林冠截留数据的收集增加了模型模拟的不确定性,但对本研究区基于物理过程的水文模拟精度提升明显,改进后模型与出山口实测径流数据一致性更强,可以为天山林区小流域水资源管理提供更可靠的依据。     

山地果园集雨-壤中防渗对水分入渗、分布和利用率的影响

集雨-壤中防渗技术是在起垄覆膜垄沟覆草技术的基础上提出的一项新技术.为了探讨集雨-壤中防渗技术在陕北黄土丘陵区山地果园的应用效果,在米脂县党塔苹果科技示范基地山地红富士苹果园布设对照(CK)、黄绵土夯实防渗(L_1)、红黏土防渗(R_1)、红黏土夯实防渗(R_2)4种处理,测定了不同防渗层类型的土壤容重、稳渗率以及不同处理的土壤水分、果实品质、产量和水分利用率.结果表明:红黏土夯实防渗层防渗效果最好,其土壤容重(1.61g·cm^-3)最高,持水量最低,稳定入渗率(0.02 mm·min^-1)最小,采用Kostiakov经验公式方程能很好地模拟不同防渗处理水分入渗特征.在整个苹果生长季节,不同防渗处理均能提高集雨沟下0~60 cm土层的土壤含水量,其中,R_2的含水量始终最高,在旱季可以达到苹果树生长发育适宜的含水量标准;壤中防渗处理60 cm土层以下20~30 cm范围内存在一个明显的"低湿层",但低湿层至200 cm土层的土壤含水量变化趋势较为稳定,较CK略有增加;集雨-壤中防渗处理能够提高果实产量和水分利用率、改善品质.其中,R_2处理的产量比CK提高了19.2%,优果率提高了26.5%,水分利用效率提高了24.5%.建议陕北黄土丘陵区山地苹果生产中大力推广集雨-壤中防渗技术.     

Analyses of the effects of potato cyst nematodes (Globodera pallida) on growth, physiology and yield of potato cultivars in field plots at three levels of soil compaction

Field experiments were carried out in 1991 and 1992 on sandy soil highly infested with the potato cyst nematode Globodera pallida. Half the trial area was fumigated with nematicide to establish two levels of nematode density. Three levels of soil compaction were made by different combinations of artificial compaction and rotary cultivation. Two potato cultivars were used in 1991 and four in 1992. Both high nematode density and soil compaction caused severe yield losses, of all cultivars except cv. Elles which was tolerant of nematode attack. The effects of the two stress factors were generally additive. Analysis of the yield loss showed that nematodes mainly reduced cumulative interception of light while compaction mainly reduced the efficiency with which intercepted light was used to produce biomass. This indicates that nematodes and compaction affect growth via different damage mechanisms. Nematodes reduced light interception by accelerating leaf senescence, by decreasing the specific leaf area and indirectly by reducing overall crop growth rate. Partitioning of biomass between leaves, stems and tubers was not affected by nematode infestation but compaction decreased partitioning to leaves early in the growing season while increasing it during later growth stages. The effects of nematodes and compaction on root length dynamics and nutrient uptake were also additive. This suggests that the commonly observed variation in yield loss caused by nematodes on different soil types is not related to differences in root system expansion between soils of various strength. Cv. Elles, which showed tolerance of nematodes by relatively low yield losses in both experiments, was characterised by high root length density and thick roots. These characteristics did not confer tolerance of soil compaction, since compaction affected root lengths and tuber yields equally in all cultivars. In the first experiment only, high nematode density led to decreased root lengths and lower plant nutrient concentrations. The yield loss which occurred in the second experiment was attributed to the effects of nematodes on other aspects of plant physiology.     

Water balance of conifer logs in early stages of decomposition

Seasonal and long-term changes in the water balance of conifer logs during the first 8 years of decomposition were studied in an old-growth Pseudotsuga/Tsuga forest in the Oregon Cascade Mountains. Measurements were made of the moisture content of outer bark, inner bark, sapwood, and heartwood and of the flow of water into and out of logs of four species (Abies amabilis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Thuja plicata, and Tsuga heterophylla). After the logs had decomposed from 1 to 2 years, 38–47% of the canopy throughfall landing upon them ran off the surface, 29–34% leached from the bottom, and 21–30% was absorbed and evaporated. After 8 years of decomposition, water entering and then leaching from logs increased 1.3 times while runoff decreased a similar amount. The proportion of water stored by and evaporated from logs in this study indicates that in old growth forests they may intercept 2–5% of the canopy throughfall to the forest floor and that, even in early stages of decomposition, they may affect the hydrological cycle of Pacific Northwest old-growth forests.This is paper 2945 of the Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis     

Estimation of deciduous forest leaf area index using direct and indirect methods

This study evaluated one semi-direct and three indirect methods for estimating leaf area index (LAI) by comparing these estimates with direct estimates derived from litter collection. The semi-direct method uses a thin metallic needle to count a number of contacts across fresh litter layers. One indirect method is based on the penetration of diffuse global radiation measured over the course of a day. The second indirect method uses the LAI-2000 plant canopy analyser (PCA) which measures diffuse light penetration from five different sky sectors simultaneously. The third indirect method uses the Demon portable light sensor to measure the penetration of direct beam sunlight at different zenith angles over the course of half a day. The Poisson model of gap frequency was applied to estimate plant area index (PAI) from observed transmittances using the second and third methods. Litter collection from 11 temperate decidous forests gave values of LAI ranging from 1.7 to 7.5. Estimates based on the needle method showed a significant linear relationship with LAI values obtained from litter collections but were systematically lower (by 6–37%). PAI estimates using all three indirect techniques (fixed light sensor system, LAI-2000 and Demon) showed a strong linear relationship with LAI derived from litter collection. Differences, averaged over all forest stands, between PAI estimates from each of the three indirect methods and LAI from litter collections were below 2%. If we consider that LAI=PAI–WAI (wood area index) then, all three indirect methods underestimated LAI by an additional factor close to the value of WAI. One reason could be a local clumping of architectural canopy components: in particular, the spatial dispositions of branchlets and leaves are not independent, leading to a non-random relationship between the distributions of these two canopy components.     

Leaf orientation and light interception by juvenile Pseudopanax crassifolius(Cunn.) C. Koch in a partially shaded forest environment

Leaf orientations and light environments were recorded for 40 juvenile Pseudopanax crassifolius trees growing in New Zealand in a partially shaded, secondary forest environment. Efficiencies of interception of diffuse and direct light by the observed leaf arrangments were calculated relative to those of three hypothetical leaf arrangements. Canopy gaps above the study plants were unevenly distributed with respect to azimuth and elevation above the horizon. Our results indicate that photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) received from the sides is more important than that received from directly above. In 33 of the plants leaf orientation was found to be significantly clustered towards one azimuth. The mean azimuth and the mean angle of declination were different for each plant. Leaves were steeply declined, and oriented towards the largest canopy gap at each site. Steep leaf angles reduced interception of direct and diffuse PAR when compared to interception by plant with a hypothetical horizontal leaf arrangement. When compared to a hypothetical arrangement with steep leaf declination and a uniform azimuth distribution, the observed leaf arrangement increased the efficiency of interception of diffuse PAR, but had a variable effect on the interception of direct PAR. Results indicate that the developing leaves of juvenile P. crassifolius orient towards the strongest sources of diffuse light, regardless of their value as a source of direct light. By maximising diffuse light interception while reducing direct light interception, leaf orientation may be a partial determinant of the types of habitats exploited by this species. This study emphasises the importance of considering diffuse light interception for plants growing in partially shaded environments.