Not only trees: Grasses determine African tropical biome distributions via water limitation and fire

Aim

Although much tropical ecology generally focuses on trees, grasses are fundamental for characterizing the extensive tropical grassy biomes (TGBs) and, together with the tree functional types, for determining the contrasting functional patterns of TGBs and tropical forests (TFs). To study the factors that determine African biome distribution and the transitions between them, we performed the first continental analysis to include grass and tree functional types.

Location

Sub‐Saharan Africa.

Time period

2000–2010.

Major taxa studied

Savanna and forest trees and C₄ grasses.

Methods

We combined remote‐sensing data with a land cover map, using tree functional types to identify TGBs and TFs. We analysed the relationships of grass and tree cover with fire interval, rainfall annual average and seasonality.

Results

In TGBs experiencing < 630 mm annual rainfall, grass growth was water limited. Grass cover and fire recurrence were strongly and directly related over the entire subcontinent. Some TGBs and TFs with annual rainfall > 1,200 mm had the same rainfall seasonality but displayed strongly different fire regimes.

Main conclusions

Water limitation to grass growth was fundamental in the driest TGBs, acting alongside the well‐known limitation to tree growth. Marked differences in fire regimes across all biomes indicated that fire was especially relevant for maintaining mesic and humid TGBs. At high rainfall, our results support the hypothesis of TGBs and TFs being alternative stable states maintained by a vegetation–fire feedback for similar climatic conditions.     

Modulation of leaf economic traits and trait relationships by climate

Aim Our aim was to quantify climatic influences on key leaf traits and relationships at the global scale. This knowledge provides insight into how plants have adapted to different environmental pressures, and will lead to better calibration of future vegetation–climate models. Location The data set represents vegetation from 175 sites around the world. Methods For more than 2500 vascular plant species, we compiled data on leaf mass per area (LMA), leaf life span (LL), nitrogen concentration (N_mass) and photosynthetic capacity (A_mass). Site climate was described with several standard indices. Correlation and regression analyses were used for quantifying relationships between single leaf traits and climate. Standardized major axis (SMA) analyses were used for assessing the effect of climate on bivariate relationships between leaf traits. Principal components analysis (PCA) was used to summarize multidimensional trait variation. Results At hotter, drier and higher irradiance sites, (1) mean LMA and leaf N per area were higher; (2) average LL was shorter at a given LMA, or the increase in LL was less for a given increase in LMA (LL–LMA relationships became less positive); and (3) A_mass was lower at a given N_mass, or the increase in A_mass was less for a given increase in N_mass. Considering all traits simultaneously, 18% of variation along the principal multivariate trait axis was explained by climate. Main conclusions Trait‐shifts with climate were of sufficient magnitude to have major implications for plant dry mass and nutrient economics, and represent substantial selective pressures associated with adaptation to different climatic regimes.     

Soil CO2 efflux in a tropical forest in the central Amazon

This study investigated the spatial and temporal variation in soil carbon dioxide (CO₂) efflux and its relationship with soil temperature, soil moisture and rainfall in a forest near Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. The mean rate of efflux was 6.45±0.25 SE μmol CO₂ m^?2s^?1 at 25.6±0.22 SE°C (5 cm depth) ranging from 4.35 to 9.76 μmol CO₂ m^?2s^?1; diel changes in efflux were correlated with soil temperature (r²=0.60). However, the efflux response to the diel cycle in temperature was not always a clear exponential function. During period of low soil water content, temperature in deeper layers had a better relationship with CO₂ efflux than with the temperature nearer the soil surface. Soil water content may limit CO₂ production during the drying‐down period that appeared to be an important factor controlling the efflux rate (r²=0.39). On the other hand, during the rewetting period microbial activity may be the main controlling factor, which may quickly induce very high rates of efflux. The CO₂ flux chamber was adapted to mimic the effects of rainfall on soil CO₂ efflux and the results showed that efflux rates reduced 30% immediately after a rainfall event. Measurements of the CO₂ concentration gradient in the soil profile showed a buildup in the concentration of CO₂ after rain on the top soil. This higher CO₂ concentration developed shortly after rainfall when the soil pores in the upper layers were filled with water, which created a barrier for gas exchange between the soil and the atmosphere.     

湖南会同杉木人工林林冠截留特征

林冠对降水的截留是森林生态系统水分平衡的一个重要组成部分,在水分循环和水资源管理方面起着非常重要的作用。杉木是我国特有的速生商品材树种,研究杉木人工林各生长阶段的林冠截留,能更好的了解杉木各生长阶段的水循环过程以及涵养水源的能力。以湖南会同杉木林生态系统国家野外科学观测研究站第Ⅲ集水区杉木人工林为研究对象,采用小集水区径流场综合试验法对1983年至2007年杉木人工林幼龄阶段、中龄阶段及近熟阶段3个不同生长阶段的林冠截留进行分析。结果表明:(1)杉木人工林不同生长阶段年均截留率分别为:幼龄阶段26%、中龄阶段27.86%和近熟阶段29.47%,3个阶段的截留率季节变化规律相似,但在降雨量较小的月份,近熟阶段的截留率明显高于幼龄阶段。(2)在雨量级小于1.0 mm时,3个阶段林冠截留率都较高且无明显差别,均在86%以上;在1.0—2.0mm雨量级时,3个阶段截留率与雨量级小于1.0 mm时均大幅降低,但3个阶段截留率物显著差异,幼龄阶段48.1%、中龄阶段48.7%和近熟阶段47.1%;在进入2.0—4.0 mm雨量级时,3个阶段截留率差异较大,幼龄阶段30.5%、中龄阶段38.4%和近熟阶段44.1%,近熟阶段的林冠能截留住更多的降雨;当降雨量大于100 mm时,3个阶段林冠截留率又无明显差异截留率均低于10%。(3)Fan模型对各阶段杉木人工林林冠截留的模拟较为理想。     

海岛景观格局变化及其对降水截存能力的影响——以浙江象山县檀头山岛为例

在自然和人类活动的共同作用下,海岛这一特殊的景观生态系统正经历着剧烈的变化。淡水是海岛景观生态系统赖以存在的基础和关键组成部分,人类活动对海岛淡水的影响是其对海岛景观生态系统影响研究的重要课题之一。基于全岛整体性的视角,以浙江省象山县檀头山岛为例,就海岛景观格局与其降水截存能力之间的数量关系进行了探索,并提出了一个能够从整体角度快速评估海岛景观格局变化对降水损失影响的综合指数——总降雨损失率(TRLR)。结果显示,自1966—2012年,檀头山岛的TRLR呈不断升高趋势,这种趋势指示了檀头山岛淡水补给能力正逐年下降,长期下去势必会破坏海岛淡水棱镜体,并最终威胁到整个海岛景观生态系统。这一变化必须引起足够的重视,相应的景观格局优化措施应该被采取以增强檀头山岛降水截存能力,保障其景观生态系统的健康与可持续。     

黄土高原不同降雨量带退耕地植被-生物结皮的分布格局

黄土高原退耕还林工程实施后,高等维管束植物恢复的同时,生物结皮大面积发育。然而,两者共同发育下的分布格局及空间变异却鲜有报道。通过野外调查,研究了黄土高原不同降雨量带退耕地上植被盖度、维管束植物斑块面积、个数,生物结皮组成、盖度及其空间变化。结果表明:1)在黄土高原降水量250—550 mm地区的退耕地及自然荒坡上,维管束植物与生物结皮共同存在,呈镶嵌分布。生物结皮多呈连续分布,可视为被镶嵌体,维管束植物多以斑块状存在,可视为镶嵌体。2)黄土高原生物结皮盖度变化于80.8%—55.1%之间,在不同降雨量带之间差异显著,250—350 mm降雨量带生物结皮平均盖度(77.8%)显著高于350—500 mm降雨量带(60.3%),但不同类型生物结皮盖度差异显著性不同。3)黄土高原地区不同降雨量带维管束植物冠层盖度变化于10.0%—58.7%,随降雨量的增加而增加,一定程度上限制了生物结皮的发育和演替,两者表现出了"此消彼长"的关系。4)随着降雨量的增加,高等维管束植物茎基斑块间的距离逐步减小,维管束植物覆被增加。研究结果数量化的揭示了黄土高原不同降雨量带退耕地上维管束植物与生物结皮的镶嵌式分布格局及其空间变异特征。     

我国南方红壤区氮磷湿沉降对森林流域氮磷输出及水质的影响

持续高通量的氮、磷输入导致水体富营养化的问题已引起广泛关注。通过对江西省千烟洲香溪流域水样(常规水样,降雨后的地表径流以及雨水水样)的季节性监测,研究大气氮、磷湿沉降对森林流域氮、磷输出动态及水质的影响。结果表明:从2013年6月至2014年5月,香溪流域内氮、磷湿沉降通量分别为11.86 kg/hm~2和0.38 kg/hm~2,其中氮湿沉降主要集中在夏秋两季,占全年输入量的64%,而磷沉降主要集中在夏季,占全年输入量的43%,表现出明显的季节性差异;水体p H值(6.22—8.89)的变化范围较大,而且氮、磷的输出受土地管理(施肥方式)及降雨事件的影响较为明显,尤其在耕作期,总氮的输出量占全年氮输出总量的96.2%,而总磷的输出量占全年磷输出总量的61.4%;对4场不同强度降雨(按降雨强度从大到小)的氮、磷输出动态过程分析,发现不同强度的降雨对水体氮、磷的输出过程影响不同,在径流未形成前以及降雨强度达到暴雨级别时,降雨对流域水体氮、磷的稀释作用明显,而在大雨强度下水体磷的输出量明显高于其他降雨;研究期间,香溪流域内氮湿沉降对水体的贡献量为101.97 kg,磷湿沉降的贡献量为0.60 kg,4场降雨氮对流域水体的贡献量为4.46kg,占流域氮输出负荷的15.22%,磷对水体的贡献量为0.032kg,占流域磷输出负荷的0.85%。同时,根据营养状态指数(EI),发现流域水体全年处于中至富营养状态,而且研究期间水体氮、磷浓度均超过水体富营养化阈值(氮1.5 mg/L,磷0.15 mg/L),存在爆发水体富营养化的威胁。     

Effect of weather on the reproductive rate of Rock Ptarmigan Lagopus muta in the eastern Pyrenees

Understanding the effects of climate on avian life history traits is essential if we wish to predict the demographic consequences of expected climatic changes. We investigated the influence of weather conditions on the reproductive success of Rock Ptarmigan Lagopus muta in the eastern French Pyrenees, one of the southernmost areas inhabited by the species. Reproductive success was estimated in early August between 1997 and 2006 by counting adults and well-grown chicks with pointing dogs. The number of young per adult varied from 0.08 to 0.72. Using Poisson regression and Akaike's information criterion, we selected the best model explaining the effect of weather (date of snowmelt and, for both laying/incubation and post-hatching periods, mean minimum and maximum temperatures, monthly rainfall and number of days with rain) on the proportion of young in August. Reproductive success was positively associated with early appearance of snow-free ground, and date of snowmelt alone was the model that best explained annual variation in reproductive success. Other models, which included a negative effect of rainfall, particularly after hatching, also had some support. Hence, both pre-laying and post-hatching weather conditions influenced reproductive success of Rock Ptarmigan in the eastern French Pyrenees. On a continental scale, reproductive success of alpine populations of Rock Ptarmigan is consistently lower than that of northern populations. This difference in productivity may be partly correlated with climatic conditions observed along an arctic–alpine gradient, the amount and variation of rainfall being greater in southern alpine areas than elsewhere in the species' range.     

Variability of water supply affected shoot biomass and root depth distribution of four temperate grassland species in monocultures and mixtures

极端降雨事件对生态系统功能影响的研究主要集中在干旱或洪水事件，通常包括全年或某个季度的平均或总降雨量的变化。然而，在不改变平均量或总量的情况下，增加降雨变异性的影响还很少被研究。本研究调查了增加水分供应变异性对单一栽培和混合栽培下4种草原植物的地上和根系生物量以及根系生物量分布的影响。将多年生黑麦草(Lolium perenne L., 浅根)，菊苣(Cichorium intybus L., 深根)，白车轴草(Trifolium repens L., 浅根)和红车轴草(Trifolium pratense L., 深根)种植在中型实验生态系统中。单一栽培条件下种植4株同种植物，混合栽 培条件下每种植物各1株。水分供应变异性处理设置低中高3种水平：与低变异水分供应处理相比，另设置一个中度变异处理(±40%)和高度变 异处理(±80%)，测定了地上和根的生物量，拟合了根系垂直分布模型。研究结果表明，与低变异处理相比，白车轴草，红车轴草和4种植物 混种群落的茎生物量在高变异处理下显著减少。在所有处理中，4种植物混种群落产生的茎和根生物量比单一栽培(超产)中物种表现所预测的要多。在水分变异增加的情况下，菊苣在单一栽培下根系分配了更多的生物量到更深的土层，而白车轴草在单一栽培下根系总生物量显著降 低。这些结果表明，水分供应变异的增加会对单一栽培和混合栽培草地的地上和根的生物量产生负面影响。在野外尺度上，水分变异对多物种 草地系统功能的影响需要进一步研究。