Dispersal ability modulates the strength of the latitudinal richness gradient in European beetles

Aim A debate exists as to whether present‐day diversity gradients are governed by current environmental conditions or by changes in environmental conditions through time. Recent studies have shown that latitudinal richness gradients might be partially caused by incomplete post‐glacial recolonization of high‐latitude regions; this leads to the prediction that less mobile taxa should have steeper gradients than more mobile taxa. The aim of this study is to test this prediction. Location Europe. Methods We first assessed whether spatial turnover in species composition is a good surrogate for dispersal ability by measuring the proportion of wingless species in 19 European beetle clades and relating this value to spatial turnover (β_sim) of the clade. We then linearly regressed β_sim values of 21 taxa against the slope of their respective diversity gradients. Results A strong relationship exists between the proportion of wingless species and β_sim, and β_sim was found to be a good predictor of latitudinal richness gradients. Main conclusions Results are consistent with the prediction that poor dispersers have steeper richness gradients than good dispersers, supporting the view that current beetle diversity gradients in Europe are affected by post‐glacial dispersal lags.     

Land use drivers of species re‐expansion: inferring colonization dynamics in Eurasian otters

Aim Land use intensity has been recognized as one of the major determinants of native species declines. The re‐expansion of species previously constrained by habitat degradation has been rarely investigated. Here, we use site occupancy models incorporating imperfect detection to identify the land use drivers of the re‐expansion of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra). Location Czech Republic. Methods We applied multi‐season occupancy models to otter presence–non‐detection data collected in three national surveys (1992, 2000, 2006) at 552 sites (11.2 × 12 km grid cells). Model parameters included site occupancy, colonization and extinction probabilities, and detection probability at a sub‐site level. We modelled changes in occupancy over time as a function of agricultural, urban and industrial land use and change in the extent of agricultural land use. Results Under the best fitting model, occupancy was estimated to be 34.6% in 1992, 51.3% in 2000 and 83.7% in 2006. Detection probability was neither perfect nor constant. Occupancy probability in 1992 was negatively related to land use gradients. Colonization was more likely to occur where a reduction in agricultural land was larger. Variation in extinction and colonization rates along land use gradients resulted in increased occupancy in industrial and especially urban landscapes. Conversely, occupancy remained almost unchanged along agricultural gradients. Main conclusions Dynamics of otter expansion were strongly associated with the two main patterns of the rapid environmental transition that has taken place in the Czech Republic since the early 1990s. Results show that a reduction in intensive agricultural land use led to an increase in otter distribution, providing evidence of the impact of agricultural land use on stream ecosystems. Moreover, otters recolonized urban and industrial landscapes, probably as a result of extensive reduction in water pollution from point sources. Our results suggest that active conservation of otter populations should focus on restoration of freshwater habitat at large scales, especially in agricultural landscapes.     

Home Range Size and Micro‐habitat Density Requirements of Egernia napoleonis: Implications for Restored Jarrah Forest of South Western Australia

Compared to natural forests, coarse woody debris (CWD) is typically scarce in restored forests due to the long time it takes to develop naturally. In post‐mining restored forests in the Jarrah forest of south western Australia, CWD is returned at densities of one log pile per hectare. We tested the adequacy of these densities for meeting the micro‐habitat requirements of Napoleon's skink (Egernia napoleonis), a species rarely found within restored sites. Home range size and overlap, and micro‐habitat densities used by skinks, were measured by radio‐tracking 12 individuals in natural, unmined forest. Napoleon's skinks had small home ranges (0.08 ± 0.02 ha), based on 8 individuals with sufficient fixes. All skinks overlapped in home ranges, with average overlaps of 43.5 ± 8.6%. Ten of the 12 skinks shared micro‐habitats and 4 shared them simultaneously, which indicates some social tolerance. This will influence as to how many micro‐habitats are required. Micro‐habitats were used at high densities: logs at 49.2 ± 8.8 ha^?1 and woody debris piles at 12.4 ± 4.8 ha^?1. Based on these densities, it is recommended that CWD is returned to restored forests at densities of 60 ha^?1, which should provide sufficient micro‐habitats for multiple skinks. Due to the infeasibility of returning such CWD densities across large areas of restored forest, CWD could be preferentially returned as patches, large enough for numerous home ranges, adjacent to unmined forest, or as corridors between unmined forest. These recommendations for returning micro‐habitats should be tested for effectiveness in encouraging recolonization of restored forest by Napoleon's skink and other species.     

Habitat type mediates equilibrium with climatic conditions in the distribution of Iberian diving beetles

Aim The contrasting habitat permanence over geological time‐scales of lotic and lentic habitats may impose different constraints on the dispersal ability of their macroinvertebrate populations, and ultimately on the degree of equilibrium with current climate. We aim to test for differences between species typical of either habitat type in their potential versus realized distributions as a surrogate measure of degree of climate equilibrium, both in refuges and more recently deglaciated areas. Location Western Europe. Methods We focus on 99 Iberian diving beetles (family Dytiscidae). A multidimensional envelope procedure was used to estimate their potential distributions, which were projected for different spatial scales. At the continental scale we calculated the percentage of countries with climatically suitable conditions for each species over those actually occupied (range filling). At the regional scale, we estimated realized distributions using: (1) convex hull polygons for Sweden and the Iberian Peninsula; and (2) generalized linear models for the Iberian Peninsula. Results In the Iberian Peninsula, differences in the degree of equilibrium with climatic conditions between lotic and lentic species were few, if any. However, at the continental scale we found significant differences, with lentic species closer to equilibrium than lotic species. In the recently deglaciated area (Sweden) the subset of species with ranges wide enough to encompass Iberia and Scandinavia were mostly lentic, and all were closer to climatic equilibrium without significant differences between habitat types. Main conclusions Our results show that, at continental scales, climate equilibrium is not concordant between the habitat types across western Europe. We hypothesize that: (1) the differences between refuge areas in dispersal ability are erased probably due to long‐term climatic stability, allowing enough time to reach equilibrium, and (2) the species with wide geographical ranges able to recolonize recently deglaciated areas should have the highest dispersal abilities, and are closer to climatic equilibrium.     

Competitive exclusion: phylogeography’s ‘elephant in the room’?

Phylogeographic and evolutionary research programmes have successfully elucidated compelling genetic signatures of earth history. Particularly influential achievements include the demonstration of postglacial recolonization patterns for high-latitude taxa and phylogenetic demonstration of the 'progression rule' along oceanic island chains such as Hawaii. While both of these major biogeographic patterns clearly rely on rapid dispersal over long distances, their phylogeographic detection also apparently relies on the competitive exclusion of secondary dispersers. Such exclusion could occur either between or within species and might reflect fitness differences between lineages or, alternatively, neutral demographic processes (e.g. 'high-density blocking'). Regardless, such spatial genetic patterns would be rapidly eroded were it not for the failure of subsequent dispersers to contribute genetically to newly colonized populations. In addition to its role in revealing colonization patterns, competitive exclusion may also explain the maintenance of historic phylogeographic disjunctions long after the original physical barriers to dispersal have ceased to exist. Additionally, some of the most persuasive evidence of competitive exclusion comes from studies of anthropogenic extinction, where surviving lineages have subsequently expanded their ranges, apparently benefitting from the demise of their prehistoric sisters. Broadly, these biogeographic paradigms are united by the 'disconnect' between dispersal and colonization success, the latter being heavily influenced by inter- and intraspecific competition. Despite its apparent importance, such exclusion (especially within species) has received virtually no attention in the phylogeographic literature. Future studies should aim to test directly for the role of competitive exclusion in constraining the biogeography of highly dispersive taxa.     

Shift of grey seal subspecies boundaries in response to climate,culling and conservation

Identifying the processes that drive changes in the abundance and distribution of natural populations is a central theme in ecology and evolution. Many species of marine mammals have experienced dramatic changes in abundance and distribution due to climatic fluctuations and anthropogenic impacts. However, thanks to conservation efforts, some of these species have shown remarkable population recovery and are now recolonizing their former ranges. Here, we use zooarchaeological, demographic and genetic data to examine processes of colonization, local extinction and recolonization of the two northern European grey seal subspecies inhabiting the Baltic Sea and North Sea. The zooarchaeological and genetic data suggest that the two subspecies diverged shortly after the formation of the Baltic Sea approximately 4200 years bp , probably through a gradual shift to different breeding habitats and phenologies. By comparing genetic data from 19th century pre‐extinction material with that from seals currently recolonizing their past range, we observed a marked spatiotemporal shift in subspecies boundaries, with increasing encroachment of North Sea seals on areas previously occupied by the Baltic Sea subspecies. Further, both demographic and genetic data indicate that the two subspecies have begun to overlap geographically and are hybridizing in a narrow contact zone. Our findings provide new insights into the processes of colonization, extinction and recolonization and have important implications for the management of grey seals across northern Europe.     

Genetic and morphological divergence along the littoral–pelagic axis in two common and sympatric fishes: perch,Perca fluviatilis (Percidae) and roach,Rutilus rutilus (Cyprinidae)

Individuals are constantly in competition with one another and, on both ecological and evolutionary timescales, processes act to reduce this competition and promote the gain of fitness advantages via diversification. Here we have investigated the genetic (AFLP) and morphological (geometric morphometrics) aspects of the littoral–pelagic axis, a commonly observed resource polymorphism in freshwater fishes of postglacial lakes. We found a large degree of variation in the genetic and morphological divergence between littoral and pelagic perch and roach across Swedish lakes. Although there was evidence of assortative mating (elevated kinship values) in both species, we could not find any significant coupling of morphology and genetic divergence. Instead, there was evidence that the extent of resource polymorphism may be largely caused by phenotypic plasticity. These results suggest that assortative mating, which can lead to genetically determined adaptive divergence, does occur in these species, particularly perch, but not according to genetically fixed morphological traits. The behavioural mechanisms facilitating associative mating need to be investigated to explore the interaction between phenotypic plasticity and adaptive genetic divergence and their roles in diversification. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 114 , 929–940.     

Postglacial range expansion and population growth of Picea mariana, Picea glauca and Pinus banksiana in the western interior of Canada

The fossil pollen records from the sediments of thirteen lakes are used to reconstruct the postglacial spread and population expansions of Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P., Picea glauca (Moench) Voss and Pinus banksiana Lamb. across the western interior of Canada. The objective of this study was to examine temporal and spatial patterns in the growth of the populations and to determine if intraspecific and interspecific variations exist across a range of latitudes and elevations. Pollen accumulation rates (PARs) are estimated from pollen grain counts and sedimentation rates throughout the early to mid-Holocene and are used to represent the population level at the time of pollen deposition. Exponential equations are used to calculate population growth rates. Three-dimensional diagrams (time, space, abundance) are constructed to illustrate range expansion and population growth.The rates of population growth varied from south to north for all three species. Pinus banksiana , on average, had slower population growth rates, and its expansion across the region began over 4000 years later and lasted approximately 1000 years longer than the two Picea species. All three tree taxa experienced reduced rates of population growth at northern high elevation sites. These variations are examined in light of the physical and biological environmental conditions which existed during postglacial range expansion and population growth.     

A mitochondrial DNA minisatellite reveals the postglacial history of jack pine (Pinus banksiana), a broad-range North American conifer

Jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) is a broadly distributed North American conifer and its current range was covered by the Laurentian ice sheet during the last glacial maximum. To infer about the history and postglacial colonization of this boreal species, range-wide genetic variation was assessed using a new and highly variable minisatellite-like marker of the mitochondrial genome. Among the 543 trees analysed, 14 distinct haplotypes were detected, which corresponded to different repeat numbers of the 32-nucleotide minisatellite-like motif. Several haplotypes were rare with limited distribution, suggesting recent mutation events during the Holocene. At the population level, an average of 2.6 haplotypes and a mean haplotype diversity (H) of 0.328 were estimated. Population subdivision of genetic diversity was quite high with G(ST) and R(ST) values of 0.569 and 0.472, respectively. Spatial analyses identified three relatively homogeneous groups of populations presumably representative of genetically distinct glacial populations, one west and one east of the Appalachian Mountains in the United States and a third one presumably on the unglaciated northeastern coastal area in Canada. These results indicate the significant role of the northern part of the US Appalachian Mountains as a factor of vicariance during the ice age. A fourth distinct group of populations was observed in central Québec where the continental glacier retreated last. It included populations harbouring haplotypes present into the three previous groups, and it had higher level of haplotype diversity per population (H = 0.548) and lower population differentiation (G(ST) = 0.265), which indicates a zone of suture or secondary contact between the migration fronts of the three glacial populations. Introgression from Pinus contorta Dougl. var. latifolia Engelm. was apparent in one western population from Alberta. Altogether, these results indicate that the mitochondrial DNA variation of jack pine is geographically highly structured and it correlates well with large-scale patterns emerging from recent phylogeographical studies of other tree boreal species in North America.     

Genetic evidence challenges the native status of a threatened freshwater fish (Carassius carassius) in England

A fundamental consideration for the conservation of a species is the extent of its native range, that is, regions naturally colonized. However, both natural processes and human‐mediated introductions can drive species distribution shifts. Ruling out the human‐mediated introduction of a species into a given region is vital for its conservation, but remains a significant challenge in most cases. The crucian carp Carassius carassius (L.) is a threatened freshwater fish thought to be native to much of Europe. However, its native status in England is based only on anecdotal evidence. Here, we devise an approach that can be used to empirically test the native status of English fauna. We use this approach, along with 13 microsatellite loci, population structure analyses, and Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC), to test hypotheses for the origins of C. carassius in England. Contrary to the current consensus, we find strong support for the human‐mediated introduction of C. carassius into England during the 15th century. This result stimulates an interesting and timely debate surrounding motivations for the conservation of species. We discuss this topic, and the potential for continued conservation of C. carassius in England, despite its non‐native origins.