Responses to ocean acidification and diurnal temperature variation in a commercially farmed seaweed,Pyropia haitanensis (Rhodophyta)

To investigate carbon and nitrogen metabolism in Pyropia haitanensis in response to the combined conditions of ocean acidification and diurnal temperature variation, maricultured thalli were tested in acidified culture under different temperature treatments. The results showed a combined effect of ocean acidification and diurnal temperature difference on the C and N metabolism and growth of P. haitanensis. In acidifed culture, algal growth, maximum photosynthetic rate, nitrate reductase (NR) activity, amino acid (AA) content and AA score (AAS) were more significantly enhanced in seaweed under diurnal temperature variation than in seaweed at constant temperature. In acidified seawater, soluble carbohydrates in P. haitanensis increased due to greater dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), whereas soluble proteins decreased. Under the diurnal temperature treatment, higher temperature during the light period enhanced accumulation of algal photosynthates, whereas lower temperature in the dark period reduced energy consumption, resulting in enhanced algal growth, AA content and AAS. We concluded that suitable diurnal temperature difference would be conducive to C fixation and N assimilation under ocean acidification. However, excessively high temperatures would depress algal photosynthesis and increase energy consumption, thereby exerting a negative effect on algal growth.     

Does seawater acidification affect zooxanthellae density and health in the invasive upside‐down jellyfish,Cassiopea spp.?

Ocean acidification is the decline in seawater pH that results from the absorption of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂). Decreased pH has negative effects on survivability, growth, and development in many marine calcifiers, potentially resulting in reduced coral species richness. This reduction in richness could open new niche space, allowing the spread of invasive species, such as the upside‐down jellyfish (Cassiopea spp.). Like corals, this jellyfish forms symbiotic relationships with zooxanthellae, photosynthetic dinoflagellates. This study focused on the effect of seawater acidification in Cassiopea spp. We monitored zooxanthellae density and two measures of health (bell diameter and volume) in individuals of Cassiopea sp. at three pH levels chosen to mimic different open‐ocean average conditions: 8.2, representing pre‐industrial revolution conditions; and 7.9 and 7.6, representing predicted declines in pH in the next century. Zooxanthellae density and health of the jellyfish were measured twice—prior to experimental manipulations and after four weeks of exposure to experimental pHs—in three consecutive trials. The effects of pH and Trial on proportional change in jellyfish attributes were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models. We found no significant effects of either factor. These results indicate that decreasing seawater pH has no apparent negative effect on zooxanthellae density or health in Cassiopea, which suggests that these jellyfish may be relatively insensitive to the impacts of ocean acidification, heightening its potential as an invasive species.     

Characterization of the exoskeleton of the Antarctic king crab Paralomis birsteini

Ocean acidification is projected to inhibit the biogenic production of calcium carbonate skeletons in marine organisms. Antarctic waters represent a natural environment in which to examine the long‐term effects of carbonate undersaturation on calcification in marine predators. King crabs (Decapoda: Anomura: Lithodidae), which currently inhabit the undersaturated environment of the continental slope off Antarctica, are potential invasives on the Antarctic shelf as oceanic temperatures rise. Here, we describe the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of the exoskeleton of the deep‐water Antarctic lithodid Paralomis birsteini and compare our measurements with two decapod species from shallow water at lower latitudes, Callinectes sapidus (Brachyura: Portunidae) and Cancer borealis (Brachyura: Cancridae). In Paralomis birsteini, crabs deposit proportionally more calcium carbonate in their predatory chelae than their protective carapaces, compared with the other two crab species. When exoskeleton thickness and microhardness were compared between the chelae and carapace, the magnitude of the difference between these body regions was significantly greater in P. birsteini than in the other species tested. Hence, there appeared to be a greater disparity in P. birsteini in overall investment in calcium carbonate structures among regions of the exoskeleton. The imperatives of prey consumption and predator avoidance may be influencing the deposition of calcium to different parts of the exoskeleton in lithodids living in an environment undersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate.     

Diversity and distribution of hidden cultivable fungi associated with marine animals of Antarctica

In the present study, we surveyed the distribution and diversity of fungal assemblages associated with 10 species of marine animals from Antarctica. The collections yielded 83 taxa from 27 distinct genera, which were identified using molecular biology methods. The most abundant taxa were Cladosporium sp. 1, Debaryomyces hansenii, Glaciozyma martinii, Metschnikowia australis, Pseudogymnoascus destructans, Thelebolus cf. globosus, Pseudogymnoascus pannorum, Tolypocladium tundrense, Metschnikowia australis, and different Penicillium species. The diversity, richness, and dominance of fungal assemblages ranged among the host; however, in general, the fungal community, which was composed of endemic and cold-adapted cosmopolitan taxa distributed across the different sites of Antarctic Peninsula, displayed high diversity, richness, and dominance indices. Our results contribute to knowledge about fungal diversity in the marine environment across the Antarctic Peninsula and their phylogenetic relationships with species that occur in other cold, temperate, and tropical regions of the World. Additionally, despite their extreme habitats, marine Antarctic animals shelter cryptic and complex fungal assemblages represented by endemic and cosmopolitan cold-adapted taxa, which may represent interesting models to study different symbiotic associations between fungi and their animal hosts in the extreme conditions of Antarctica.     

Towards an urban marine ecology: characterizing the drivers,patterns and processes of marine ecosystems in coastal cities

Human population density within 100 km of the sea is approximately three times higher than the global average. People in this zone are concentrated in coastal cities that are hubs for transport and trade – which transform the marine environment. Here, we review the impacts of three interacting drivers of marine urbanization (resource exploitation, pollution pathways and ocean sprawl) and discuss key characteristics that are symptomatic of urban marine ecosystems. Current evidence suggests these systems comprise spatially heterogeneous mosaics with respect to artificial structures, pollutants and community composition, while also undergoing biotic homogenization over time. Urban marine ecosystem dynamics are often influenced by several commonly observed patterns and processes, including the loss of foundation species, changes in biodiversity and productivity, and the establishment of ruderal species, synanthropes and novel assemblages. We discuss potential urban acclimatization and adaptation among marine taxa, interactive effects of climate change and marine urbanization, and ecological engineering strategies for enhancing urban marine ecosystems. By assimilating research findings across disparate disciplines, we aim to build the groundwork for urban marine ecology – a nascent field; we also discuss research challenges and future directions for this new field as it advances and matures. Ultimately, all sides of coastal city design: architecture, urban planning and civil and municipal engineering, will need to prioritize the marine environment if negative effects of urbanization are to be minimized. In particular, planning strategies that account for the interactive effects of urban drivers and accommodate complex system dynamics could enhance the ecological and human functions of future urban marine ecosystems.     

Estuary–ocean connectivity: fast physics,slow biology

Estuaries are connected to both land and ocean so their physical, chemical, and biological dynamics are influenced by climate patterns over watersheds and ocean basins. We explored climate‐driven oceanic variability as a source of estuarine variability by comparing monthly time series of temperature and chlorophyll‐a inside San Francisco Bay with those in adjacent shelf waters of the California Current System (CCS) that are strongly responsive to wind‐driven upwelling. Monthly temperature fluctuations inside and outside the Bay were synchronous, but their correlations weakened with distance from the ocean. These results illustrate how variability of coastal water temperature (and associated properties such as nitrate and oxygen) propagates into estuaries through fast water exchanges that dissipate along the estuary. Unexpectedly, there was no correlation between monthly chlorophyll‐a variability inside and outside the Bay. However, at the annual scale Bay chlorophyll‐a was significantly correlated with the Spring Transition Index (STI) that sets biological production supporting fish recruitment in the CCS. Wind forcing of the CCS shifted in the late 1990s when the STI advanced 40 days. This shift was followed, with lags of 1–3 years, by 3‐ to 19‐fold increased abundances of five ocean‐produced demersal fish and crustaceans and 2.5‐fold increase of summer chlorophyll‐a in the Bay. These changes reflect a slow biological process of estuary–ocean connectivity operating through the immigration of fish and crustaceans that prey on bivalves, reduce their grazing pressure, and allow phytoplankton biomass to build. We identified clear signals of climate‐mediated oceanic variability in this estuary and discovered that the response patterns vary with the process of connectivity and the timescale of ocean variability. This result has important implications for managing nutrient inputs to estuaries connected to upwelling systems, and for assessing their responses to changing patterns of upwelling timing and intensity as the planet continues to warm.     

One‐year experiment on the physiological response of the Mediterranean crustose coralline alga,Lithophyllum cabiochae,to elevated pCO2 and temperature

The response of respiration, photosynthesis, and calcification to elevated pCO₂ and temperature was investigated in isolation and in combination in the Mediterranean crustose coralline alga Lithophyllum cabiochae. Algae were maintained in aquaria during 1 year at near‐ambient conditions of irradiance, at ambient or elevated temperature (+3°C), and at ambient (ca. 400 μatm) or elevated pCO₂ (ca. 700 μatm). Respiration, photosynthesis, and net calcification showed a strong seasonal pattern following the seasonal variations of temperature and irradiance, with higher rates in summer than in winter. Respiration was unaffected by pCO₂ but showed a general trend of increase at elevated temperature at all seasons, except in summer under elevated pCO₂. Conversely, photosynthesis was strongly affected by pCO₂ with a decline under elevated pCO₂ in summer, autumn, and winter. In particular, photosynthetic efficiency was reduced under elevated pCO₂. Net calcification showed different responses depending on the season. In summer, net calcification increased with rising temperature under ambient pCO₂ but decreased with rising temperature under elevated pCO₂. Surprisingly, the highest rates in summer were found under elevated pCO₂ and ambient temperature. In autumn, winter, and spring, net calcification exhibited a positive or no response at elevated temperature but was unaffected by pCO₂. The rate of calcification of L. cabiochae was thus maintained or even enhanced under increased pCO₂. However, there is likely a trade‐off with other physiological processes. For example, photosynthesis declines in response to increased pCO₂ under ambient irradiance. The present study reports only on the physiological response of healthy specimens to ocean warming and acidification, however, these environmental changes may affect the vulnerability of coralline algae to other stresses such as pathogens and necroses that can cause major dissolution, which would have critical consequence for the sustainability of coralligenous habitats and the budgets of carbon and calcium carbonate in coastal Mediterranean ecosystems.     

A Note on a Comparison of the Ocean Governance System Between Mainland China and Taiwan

With the increasing use of the oceans and coastal areas, there is a need to pay greater attention to and reexamine the issue of ocean governance. Through comparing the framework of ocean governance in mainland China with that in Taiwan in terms of legislation, administration, and law enforcement, this article establishes that there are advanced practices concerning ocean governance in Taiwan and lessons that may be applicable for mainland China.     

Ocean acidification and rising temperatures may increase biofilm primary productivity but decrease grazer consumption

Climate change may cause ecosystems to become trophically restructured as a result of primary producers and consumers responding differently to increasing CO₂ and temperature. This study used an integrative approach using a controlled microcosm experiment to investigate the combined effects of CO₂ and temperature on key components of the intertidal system in the UK, biofilms and their consumers (Littorina littorea). In addition, to identify whether pre-exposure to experimental conditions can alter experimental outcomes we explicitly tested for differential effects on L. littorea pre-exposed to experimental conditions for two weeks and five months. In contrast to predictions based on metabolic theory, the combination of elevated temperature and CO₂ over a five-week period caused a decrease in the amount of primary productivity consumed by grazers, while the abundance of biofilms increased. However, long-term pre-exposure to experimental conditions (five months) altered this effect, with grazing rates in these animals being greater than in animals exposed only for two weeks. We suggest that the structure of future ecosystems may not be predictable using short-term laboratory experiments alone owing to potentially confounding effects of exposure time and effects of being held in an artificial environment over prolonged time periods. A combination of laboratory (physiology responses) and large, long-term experiments (ecosystem responses) may therefore be necessary to adequately predict the complex and interactive effects of climate change as organisms may acclimate to conditions over the longer term.