Characterization of Bradyrhizobium strains indigenous to Western Australia and South Africa indicates remarkable genetic diversity and reveals putative new species

Bradyrhizobium are N₂-fixing microsymbionts of legumes with relevant applications in agricultural sustainability, and we investigated the phylogenetic relationships of conserved and symbiotic genes of 21 bradyrhizobial strains. The study included strains from Western Australia (WA), isolated from nodules of Glycine spp. the country is one genetic center for the genus and from nodules of other indigenous legumes grown in WA, and strains isolated from forage Glycine sp. grown in South Africa. The 16S rRNA phylogeny divided the strains in two superclades, of B. japonicum and B. elkanii, but with low discrimination among the species. The multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) with four protein-coding housekeeping genes (dnaK, glnII, gyrB and recA) pointed out seven groups as putative new species, two within the B. japonicum, and five within the B. elkanii superclades. The remaining eleven strains showed higher similarity with six species, B. lupini, B. liaoningense, B. yuanmingense, B. subterraneum, B. brasilense and B. retamae. Phylogenetic analysis of the nodC symbiotic gene clustered 13 strains in three different symbiovars (sv. vignae, sv. genistearum and sv. retamae), while seven others might compose new symbiovars. The genetic profiles of the strains evaluated by BOX-PCR revealed high intra- and interspecific diversity. The results point out the high level of diversity still to be explored within the Bradyrhizobium genus, and further studies might confirm new species and symbiovars.     

Rice straw decomposition in rice-field soil

Rice straw, buried in a rice-field during the dry season decomposed at a rate of 0.0075 day-1. Seventy five percent of the biomass, 70 percent carbon, 50 percent nitrogen and 30 percent phosphorus remained after 139 days of decomposition. Rice straw decomposition furnished 33% N and 8% P of the total nitrogen and phosphorus provided by man.     

Nitrogen and Phosphorus in the Finnish Energy System, 1900–2003

In producing power, humans move the nutrients nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) from their long‐term geological and biological stocks and release or emit them in soil, water, and the atmosphere. In Finland, peat combustion is an important driver of N and P fluxes from the environment to human economy. The flows of N and P in the Finnish energy system were quantified with partial substance flow analysis, and the driving forces of emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) were analyzed using the ImPACT model. In the year 2000 in Finland, 140,000 tonnes of nitrogen entered the energy system, mainly in peat and hard coal. Combustion released an estimated 66,000 tonnes of N as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and nitrous oxides (N2O) and another 74,000 tonnes as elemental N2. Most of the emissions were borne in traffic. At the same time, 6,000 tonnes of P was estimated to enter the Finnish energy system, mostly in peat and wood. Ash was mainly used in earth construction and disposed in landfills; thus negligible levels of P were recycled back to nature. During the twentieth century, fuel‐borne input of N increased 20‐fold, and of P 8‐fold. In 1900–1950, the increasing use of hard coal slowly boosted N input, whereas wood fuels were the main carrier of P. Since 1970, the fluxes have been on the rise. NOx emissions leveled off in the 1980s, though, and then declined in conjunction with improvements in combustion technologies such as NOx removal (de‐NOx) technologies in energy production and catalytic converters in cars.     

Differences between Indica and Japonica rice varieties in CO2 exchange rates in response to leaf nitrogen and temperature

Four Indica and five Japonica varieties of rice (Oryza sativa L.) were examined to elucidate their differences in photosynthetic activity and dark respiratory rate as influenced by leaf nitrogen levels and temperatures. The photosynthetic rates of single leaf showed correlations with total nitrogen and soluble protein contents in the leaves. Respiratory rate was also positively correlated with the leaf nitrogen content. When compared at the same level of leaf nitrogen or soluble protein content, the four Indica varieties and one of Japonica varieties, Tainung 67, which have some Indica genes derived from one of its parents, showed higher photosynthetic rates than the remaining four Japonica varieties. At the same photosynthetic rate, the Indica varieties showed lower respiratory rate than Japonica varieties. When the leaf temperature rose from 20°C to 30°C, the photosynthetic rate increased by 18 to 41%, whereas the respiratory rate increased by 100 to 150%. These increasing rates in response to temperature were higher in the Japonica than in the Indica varieties. In this respect, Tainung 67 showed the same behavior as of the other four Japonica varieties.Abbreviations 30/20 ratios the ratios of photosynthetic and respiratory rates at 30°C to those at 20°C     

The biogeochemistry of nitrogen in freshwater wetlands

The biogeochemistry of N in freshwater wetlands is complicated by vegetation characteristics that range from annual herbs to perennial woodlands; by hydrologic characteristics that range from closed, precipitation-driven to tidal, riverine wetlands; and by the diversity of the nitrogen cycle itself. It is clear that sediments are the single largest pool of nitrogen in wetland ecosystems (100's to 1000's g N m^-2) followed in rough order-of-magnitude decreases by plants and available inorganic nitrogen. Precipitation inputs (< 1–2 g N m^-2 yr^-1) are well known but other atmospheric inputs, e.g. dry deposition, are essentially unknown and could be as large or larger than wet deposition. Nitrogen fixation (acetylene reduction) is an important supplementary input in some wetlands (< < 1–3 g N m^-2 yr^-1) but is probably limited by the excess of fixed nitrogen usually present in wetland sediments.Plant uptake normally ranges from a few g N m^-2 yr^-1 to 35 g N m^-2 yr^-1 with extreme values of up to 100g N m^-2 yr^-1 Results of translocation experiments done to date may be misleading and may call for a reassessment of the magnitude of both plant uptake and leaching rates. Interactions between plant litter and decomposer microorganisms tend, over the short-term, to conserve nitrogen within the system in immobile forms. Later, decomposers release this nitrogen in forms and at rates that plants can efficiently reassimilate.The NO₃ formed by nitrification (< 0.1 to 10 g N m^-2 yr^-1 has several fates which may tend to either conserve nitrogen (uptake and dissimilatory reduction to ammonium) or lead to its loss (denitrification). Both nitrification and denitrification operate at rates far below their potential and under proper conditions (e.g. draining or fluctuating water levels) may accelerate. However, virtually all estimates of denitrification rates in freshwater wetlands are based on measurements of potential denitrification, not actual denitrification and, as a consequence, the importance of denitrification in these ecosystems may have been greatly over estimated.In general, larger amounts of nitrogen cycle within freshwater wetlands than flow in or out. Except for closed, ombrotrophic systems this might seem an unusual characteristic for ecosystems that are dominated by the flux of water, however, two factors limit the opportunity for N loss. At any given time the fraction of nitrogen in wetlands that could be lost by hydrologic export is probably a small fraction of the potentially mineralizable nitrogen and is certainly a negligible fraction of the total nitrogen in the system. Second, in some cases freshwater wetlands may be hydrologically isolated so that the bulk of upland water flow may pass under (in the case of floating mats) or by (in the case of riparian systems) the biotically active components of the wetland. This may explain the rather limited range of N loading rates real wetlands can accept in comparison to, for example, percolation columns or engineered marshes.     

The influence of earthworms (Lumbricidae) on the nitrogen dynamics in the soil litter system of a deciduous forest

Summary The influence of earthworms (Aporrectodea caliginosa (Savigny) and Lumbricus castaneus (Savigny)) on the rate of nitrogen net mineralization of the soil was studied in the laboratory and in the field. The additional mineralization of nitrogen cause by the burrowing activity of the substrat feeding earthworm A. caliginosa (N _L )was directly correlated to the biomass of the lumbricids independently of their number. A rise in temperature caused an exponential increase in N _L values. The Q ₁₀ value of this process (2.18) was found to be much higher than that of the nitrogen mineralization without earthworms (Q ₁₀=1.22). At 15°C the N _L value caused by A. caliginosa was calculated to be about 250 g N g^-1 fresh body wt d^-1. Using the experimentally determined exponential relationship between temperature and N _L values, the additional nitrogen mineralization caused by a population of A. caliginosa in a beechwood on limestone was calculated to be 4.23 kg ha^-1 a^-1.In contrast to A. caliginosa the litter dwelling species L. castaneus lost considerable amounts of biomass (56%) during the 4 week incubation period. Only 1/3 of the nitrogen equivalent to the weight loss of the animals was recovered in the mineral nitrogen pool.The addition of litter (old beech leaf litter, freshly fallen beech and ash leaf litter) had a pronounced effect on both nitrogen net mineralization and N _L values of the soil. Presence of old beech leaves caused an increase in both values, wheres the other litter types effected a decrease in nitrogen net mineralization. Fragmented ash litter was found to have the most distinct effect on N _L values (-69%) and nitrogen net mineralization (-74%).     

Micronutrients and nitrogen metabolism

A sand-culture experiment was conducted to study the influence of a deficiency of and an excess of micronutrients on the uptake and assimilation of NH ₄ ⁺ and NO ₃ ⁻ ions by maize. By studying the fate of¹⁵N supplied as¹⁵NH₄NO₃ or NH₄ ¹⁵NO₃, it was demonstrated that in maize plants NH₄−N was absorbed in preference to NO ₃ ⁻ −N. The uptake and distribution of N originating from both NH ₄ ⁺ and NO ₃ ⁻ was considerably modified by deficiency of, or an excess of, micronutrients in the growth medium. The translocation of NH ₄ ⁺ −N from roots to shoots was relatively less than that of NO ₃ ⁻ −N. Deficiency as well as excessive amounts of micronutrients, in the growth medium, substantially reduced the translocation of absorbed N into protein. This effect was more pronounced in the case of N supplied as NO ₃ ⁻ . Amino-N was the predominant non-protein fraction in which N from both NH ₄ ⁺ and NO ₃ ⁻ tended to accumulate. The next important non-protein fractions were NO ₃ ⁻ −N when N was supplied as NO ₃ ⁻ and amide-N when NH ₄ ⁺ was the source. The relative accumulation of¹⁵N into different protein fractions was also a function of imposed micronutrient levels.