Genetic interference reduces the evolvability of modular and non-modular visual neural networks

The aim of this paper is to propose an interdisciplinary evolutionary connectionism approach for the study of the evolution of modularity. It is argued that neural networks as a model of the nervous system and genetic algorithms as simulative models of biological evolution would allow us to formulate a clear and operative definition of module and to simulate the different evolutionary scenarios proposed for the origin of modularity. I will present a recent model in which the evolution of primate cortical visual streams is possible starting from non-modular neural networks. Simulation results not only confirm the existence of the phenomenon of neural interference in non-modular network architectures but also, for the first time, reveal the existence of another kind of interference at the genetic level, i.e. genetic interference, a new population genetic mechanism that is independent from the network architecture. Our simulations clearly show that genetic interference reduces the evolvability of visual neural networks and sexual reproduction can at least partially solve the problem of genetic interference. Finally, it is shown that entrusting the task of finding the neural network architecture to evolution and that of finding the network connection weights to learning is a way to completely avoid the problem of genetic interference. On the basis of this evidence, it is possible to formulate a new hypothesis on the origin of structural modularity, and thus to overcome the traditional dichotomy between innatist and empiricist theories of mind.     

Individual Dopaminergic Neurons of Lamprey SNc/VTA Project to Both the Striatum and Optic Tectum but Restrict Co-release of Glutamate to Striatum Only

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Proton-conductivity assay of plugged and unplugged MotA/B proton channel by cytoplasmic pHluorin expressed in Salmonella

MotA and MotB form the proton-channel complex of the proton-driven bacterial flagellar motor. A plug segment of Escherichia coli MotB suppresses proton leakage through the MotA/B complex when it is not assembled into the motor. Using a ratiometric pH indicator protein, pHluorin, we show that the proton-conductivity of a Salmonella MotA/B complex not incorporated into the motor is two orders of magnitude lower than that of a complex that is incorporated and activated. This leakage is, however, significant enough to change the cytoplasmic pH to a level at which the chemotaxis signal transduction system responds.     

Stimulating the Lip Motor Cortex with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a useful tool in investigating the role of the articulatory motor cortex in speech perception. Researchers have used single-pulse and repetitive TMS to stimulate the lip representation in the motor cortex. The excitability of the lip motor representation can be investigated by applying single TMS pulses over this cortical area and recording TMS-induced motor evoked potentials (MEPs) via electrodes attached to the lip muscles (electromyography; EMG). Larger MEPs reflect increased cortical excitability. Studies have shown that excitability increases during listening to speech as well as during viewing speech-related movements. TMS can be used also to disrupt the lip motor representation. A 15-min train of low-frequency sub-threshold repetitive stimulation has been shown to suppress motor excitability for a further 15-20 min. This TMS-induced disruption of the motor lip representation impairs subsequent performance in demanding speech perception tasks and modulates auditory-cortex responses to speech sounds. These findings are consistent with the suggestion that the motor cortex contributes to speech perception. This article describes how to localize the lip representation in the motor cortex and how to define the appropriate stimulation intensity for carrying out both single-pulse and repetitive TMS experiments.     

环境光对哺乳动物昼夜节律和大脑功能的影响

昼夜循环对人类和其他动物的生理和行为有着巨大的影响。光照条件能影响动物的视觉成像,并通过向大脑中的生物钟中心发送信号来调整生理和行为的节律。环境光向生物钟传递信号的系统包含了一个复杂的神经递质复合体-受体-第二信使系统。在夜间曝光能迅速启动下丘脑视交叉上核中大量相关的早期基因。此外,许多白天活动的物种,通常都是在光照条件下获得认知。本文综述了环境光对哺乳动物睡眠、生物节律、大脑认知能力和基因表达等生理和行为方面的影响。     

Independent evolution of song diversity and song motor performance in canaries,goldfinches and allies indicates clade-specific trade-offs in birdsong

The diversity and the motor performance of birdsongs can both be sexually selected. In wood warblers, most species with high motor performance sing a greater proportion of trills, presumably to advertise performance, and thus have lower syllable diversity. We tested if this trade-off between motor performance and syllable diversity extends to canaries, goldfinches and allies, a clade with much longer and more varied songs. We assembled a molecular phylogeny and inferred song motor performance based on the speed of frequency modulation either in trills or in within-song intervals. The two metrics of performance were positively, but only mildly, related across species. While performance evaluated in intervals had high phylogenetic signal, performance evaluated in trills changed independently of phylogeny and was constrained by body size. Species in densely vegetated habitats sang fewer trills, but did not differ in motor performance. Contrary to wood warblers, song motor performance did not predict the proportion of trilled syllables nor within-song syllable diversity, perhaps because large differences in the song duration of canaries, goldfinches and allies prevent trills from severely compromising syllable diversity. Opposed results in wood warblers and in these finches indicate the existence of clade-specific trade-offs in the evolution of birdsong.     

羊水直接PCR法快速诊断脊肌萎缩症的实验研究

目的：建立一种快速、简便的产前诊断脊肌萎缩症的检测方法。方法：基于运动神经元生存基因SMNc和SMNt的两个同源拷贝碱基的差异,对SMNt基因第7、8外显子进行缺失分析,抽取孕妇羊水后用作者自行研制的“HpH—Buffer”,以离心后羊水沉淀中的胎儿细胞为模板直接进行PCR扩增,扩增产物进行酶切限制性片断长度多态性分析,对2例有脊肌萎缩症患儿生育史的孕妇怀有的胎儿进行产前基因诊断。同时,为考察羊水直接扩增方法的效率,对羊水样本直接扩增和对羊水样本中提取的基因组DNA扩增进行了平行实验。结果：2例胎儿均有SMNt基因第7、8外显子缺失;以羊水为模板和以基因组DNA为模板进行扩增的效率相似。结论：应用“HpHBuffer”直接对羊水样本中SMN基因上外显子7、8进行扩增,结合限制性片断长度多态性分析SMNt上是否发生缺失,可缩短诊断时间,节约诊断成本,减少检测过程中可能出现的样本交叉污染,有望成为临床上产前诊断脊肌萎缩症的新方法。     

Set-Related Activity in the Premotor Cortex of Rhesus Monkeys: Effect of Triggering Cues and Relatively Long Delay Intervals

“Set-related activity” has been defined as a significant alteration in neuronal discharge rate during an “instructed delay period,” a period when a previously instructed movement is being withheld. It has been argued that set-related activity in the primate premotor cortex, or at least a significant proportion of it, reflects motor preparation. In most previous investigations, however, in which visual stimuli have triggered the movement and simultaneously indicated its target, set-related activity might reflect either the anticipation of or attention to the trigger stimulus. The present report shows that set-related activity is robust and can be directionally selective when trigger stimuli do not indicate the target and when a trigger stimulus is absent. Another feature of previous studies has been the relatively brief intervals between the instruction and trigger stimuli (typically 3 sec or less). In the present study, we were able to observe the activity of a small number of cells during longer delay periods. Set-related activity persists, although it becomes less consistent, for as much as 7.5 sec after an instruction stimulus. These results support the hypothesis that set-related activity reflects the preparation for specific limb movements.     

The social brain hypothesis

Conventional wisdom over the past 160 years in the cognitive and neurosciences has assumed that brains evolved to process factual information about the world. Most attention has therefore been focused on such features as pattern recognition, color vision, and speech perception. By extension, it was assumed that brains evolved to deal with essentially ecological problem-solving tasks. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

生物学专业动物学实验教学中培养学生解剖技能的探索

动物解剖实验在动物学实验教学中占有重要地位,学生的解剖技能是做好动物解剖实验的基础,也是学生以后从事科学研究和教学的基本素质.结合动物学实验教学实践阐述了动物解剖的基本原则及培养学生解剖技能的方法,以便学生系统理解动物解剖的基本原则和方法.