ANALYSIS OF WING‐SHAPE CHARACTERITICS OF MIGRATORY LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS*

Abstract Morphological characteristics of the forewings of 42 species of moths and 31 species of butterflies were comparatively analyzed with special reference to their migration ability. The curvature values of costal margin of the forewings revealed that the migratory moths and butterflies have relatively narrower forewings with straighter costal margin as compared with respective non‐migratory species. The posterior area of forewings was wider in the migratory moths and narrower in the migratory butterflies than that of respective non‐migratory species.     

Species-specific attraction of migratory banded kokopu juveniles to adult pheromones

Juvenile migratory Galaxias fasciatus juveniles or whitebait were attracted to odours produced by adults. The attraction was dependent on concentration with an upstream movement and attraction to the odour chamber at intermediate level concentrations. At a high concentration the migratory response of whitebait was retarded with the majority of fish not moving upstream but remaining in the lower section of the apparatus. There was no response to odours from adults of other galaxiid species, the inanga G. maculatus or koaro G. brevipinnis at any concentration. These results demonstrate G. fasciatus whitebait have the ability to discriminate species-specific pheromones during their migratory phase, providing evidence of a pheromonal attraction in migratory amphidromous fish which could possibly provide a basis for effective habitat selection.     

Effects of Shade‐Tree Species and Crop Structure on the Winter Arthropod and Bird Communities in a Jamaican Shade Coffee Plantation1

I examined the effects of two farm management variables, shade‐tree species and crop structure, on the winter (dry season) arthropod and bird communities in a Jamaican shade coffee plantation. Birds and canopy arthropods were more abundant in areas of the plantation shaded by the tree Inga vera than by Pseudalbizia berteroana. The abundance of arthropods (potential pests) on the coffee crop, however, was unaffected by shade‐tree species. Canopy arthropods, particularly psyllids (Homoptera), were especially abundant on Inga in late winter, when it was producing new leaves and nectar‐rich flowers. Insectivorous and nectarivorous birds showed the strongest response to Inga; thus the concentration of birds in Inga may be a response to abundant food. Coffee‐tree arthropod abundance was much lower than in the shade trees and was affected little by farm management variables, although arthropods tended to be more abundant in dense (unpruned) than open (recently pruned) areas of the plantation. Perhaps in response, leaf‐gleaning insectivorous birds were more abundant in dense areas. These results underscore that although some shade coffee plantations may provide habitat for arthropod and bird communities, differences in farm management practices can significantly affect their abundances. Furthermore, this study provides evidence suggesting that bird communities in coffee respond to spatial variation in arthropod availability. I conclude that /. vera is a better shade tree than P. berteroana, but a choice in crop structures is less clear due to changing effects of prune management over time.     

Turnover of passerine birds on islands in the Aegean Sea (Greece)

Aim We wish to determine the effect of migratory status on turnover rates in island birds. Because turnover is influenced by factors other than migratory status, we also considered the influence of body size and physical characteristics of the islands inhabited on the probabilities of extinction and immigration. Location The Mediterranean islands of Delos, Astypalea, Paros, Naxos and Lesvos in the Aegean Sea, Greece. Methods The passerine birds of these islands were surveyed between 1954 and 1961 by G.E. Watson, and were resurveyed between 1988 and 1992. The effects of migratory status and body size on the probabilities of extinction and immigration were examined by G‐tests of linear trend in proportion, and analysis of variance, respectively. A combined analysis of migratory status, body size and physical characteristics of the islands was carried out using logistic regressions of the probabilities of extinction and immigration on these factors. Results Species number on each island changed little between surveys, with no island's species number changing by more than one species. Twelve population extinctions and 11 immigrations were recorded. The smallest island, Delos (6 km²), had the highest annualized relative turnover rate (1.08), while the four larger islands (96–1614 km²) had lower and mutually similar rates (0.21–0.27). Populations on higher elevation islands were less likely to go extinct. There is no evidence for an effect of body size on the probabilities of extinction or immigration. Migratory status affected extinction and immigration probabilities differently: migratory species were more likely to immigrate, but less likely to go extinct. Main conclusions The position of the Aegean islands along a major north–south flyway may account for the observed effects of migratory status. The annual passage of large numbers of migrants may, via the rescue effect, decrease the chances of extinction, while at the same time increasing the chances of colonization of unoccupied islands. The likelihood of both extinction and immigration involves a complex interaction between life‐history traits and island characteristics. The effects of migratory status will depend not only on consideration of vagility, vulnerability and stochasticity identified by previous authors, but also upon the location of the islands in relationship to migratory pathways.     

Determination of the migratory route of botfly larvae, Cuterebra grisea (Diptera: Cuterebridae) in deermice

HUnter D. M. and Webster J. M. 1973. Determination of the migratory route of botfly larvae, Cuterebra grisea (Diptera: Cuterebridae) in deermice. International Journal for Parasitology3:311–316. Cuterebra grisea larvae introduced into deermice (Peromyscus manicutatus) occurred in the nasal passages (nose or eye entry) or were associated with the esophagus and trachea (mouth entry) in the first three days after entry. During this period, some deermice exhibited a violent wheezing reaction. From day 4 to 6 after entry, larvae migrated to the final development site in the inguinal region of the deermouse. Migrating larvae were found on the front and top of the head, on the back and at the base of the tail. The similarity of this migratory path for C. grisea with the final development sites of other Cuterebra species is discussed.     

MORPHOLOGICAL AND MOLECULAR VARIATION ACROSS A MIGRATORY DIVIDE IN WILLOW WARBLERS,PHYLLOSCOPUS TROCHILUS

A migratory divide is a narrow region in which two populations showing different migratory directions meet arid presumably also mate and hybridize. Banding of willow warblers, Phylloscopus trochilus, in Europe has demonstrated a migratory divide latitudinally across central Scandinavia. In autumn, southern birds migrate southwest to tropical West Africa, whereas northern birds migrate southeast to East and South Africa. The migratory divide is associated with concordant differences in size and plumage coloration. Based on morphology, we estimate the width of the transition zone between northern and southern willow warblers to be less than 350 km. We found indication of linkage disequilibria around the migratory divide, in that measures of body size were correlated with plumage coloration within the contact zone, but uncorrelated within the populations south or north of the contact zone. The presence of linkage disequilibria and the fact that several morphological clines occur together suggest that the hybrid zone is a result of secondary contact between populations that have differentiated in allopatry. This interpretation is in accord with the knowledge of the recolonization pattern of the Scandinavian peninsula after the last glaciation; animals and plants appeared to have colonized either from the south or from the north around the northern bay of the Baltic Sea. If northern and southern willow warblers resided in allopatric populations during late Pleistocene glaciations and the hybrid zone is a result of postglacial range expansions, we would expect some degree of genetic differentiation accumulated during the period in isolation. In contrast, northern and southern willow warblers are near panmictic in the frequencies of alleles of mitochondrial DNA and at two microsatellite loci. The observed pattern, clear morphological and behavioral differentiation without genetic differentiation at neutral loci, suggests either that the differences are maintained by strong selection on the expressed genes in combination with high levels of current gene flow or, in the case of weak gene flow, that the divergence in morphology and behavior is very recent.     

The Origin,Dispersal and Formation of the Distribution Pattern of Swertia L. (Gentianaceae)

The genus Swertia is one of the large genera in Gentianaceae, including 154 species, 16 series and 11 sections. It is disjunctly distributed in Europe, Asia, Africa and N. America, but entirely absent from Oceania and S. America. According to Takhtajan’s (1978) regionalization of the world flora, Swertia is found in 14 regions. Eastern Asiatic region with 86 species, of which 58 are local endemics, 13 series and 9 sections, ranks the first among all the regions. The highest concentration of the taxa and endemics in Eastern Asiatic region occurs in SW China-Himalayan area (Sikang-Yunnan P. , W. Sichuan, W. Yunnan-Guichou Plateau of China and NE. Burma, N. Burmense P. , E. Himalayan P. and Khasi-Manipur P. ). In this area there are 74 species (48 endemics), 12 series, and 9 sections; thus about half species of the world total, three quarters of series and 82% of sections occur in this small area. Besides, the taxa at different evolutionary stages in Swertia also survive here. It is an indication that SW. China-Himalayan area is a major distribution centre of the genus Swertia. In addition, Sudan-Zambezian Region in Africa, with 22 species, 4 series and 2 sections, is a second distribution centre. The primitive type of the genus Swertia is Sect. Rugosa which consists of 2 series and 23 species. It is highly centred in the mountains of SW. China (Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou and SE. Xizang) where 2 series and 16 species occur. Among them 15 species of Ser. Rugosae were considered as the most primitive groups in this genus. From our study, the outgroup of Swertia is the genus Latouchea Frahch. , which is distributed in Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi and Fujian. The two groups overlap in distribution in SW. China. According to the principle of common origin, the ancestor of two genera ap peared most probably in this overlapping area. It was inferred that SW. China Was the birth-place of the genus Swertia. Four sections of Swertia have different disjunct distribution patterns: Sect. Ophelia is of Tropic Asia, Africa and Madagascar disjunct distribution; sect. Swertia is of north temperate distribution; sect. Spinosisemina is in Tropical Asia (Trop. India to S. China and Philipines); sect. Platynema also is in Tropical Asia (Java, Sumatra, Himalayas to SW. China). These disjunct patterns indicate that the Swertia floras between the continents or between continent and islands have a connection with each other. From paleogeographical analysis, Swertia plants dispersed to Madagascar before the Late Cretaceous, to SE. Asian Islands in the Pleistocene, to North America in the Miocene. The distribution of Swertia in Madagascar might be later than that in Asia. Therefore the origin time of the genus Swertia was at least not later than the Late Cretaceous, and might be back to the Mid-Cretaceous. The genus Swertia first fully developed and differentiated, forming some taxa at different evolutionary stages (Rugosa, Swertia, Poephila, Ophelia and Platynema etc. ) in the original area, and these taxa quickly dispersed in certain directions during the Late Cretaceous-Middle Tertiary when the global climate was warm and no much change. There seem to be three main dispersal routes from the origin area to different continents; (1) The westward route i. e. from SW. China, along the Himalayas area to Kashmir, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran, and then southwestwards into Africa throuth Arabia. Four sections (Poephila, Macranthos, Kingdon-Wardia and Ophelia) took this dispersal route. Most species of sect. Ophelia dispersed along this route, but a few along southern route and north ern route. Sect. Ophelia greatly differentiated in Africa and the African endemic sectionSect. Montana was derived from it. The two sections form there a second distribution center of Swertia. (2) The southward route, i. e. towards S. India through the Himalayas, and towards SE. Asian islands through C. and S. China, Indo-China. Along this dispersal route sect. Platynema, Sect. Spinosisemina and a few species of Sect. Ophelia dispersed; (3) The northward rout, i. e. northwards across N. China, C. Asia to a high latitude of Euasia, and also through E. Asia into N. America. The following groups took this route: sect. Rugosa, sect. Swertia, sect. Frasera, sect. Heteranthos and sect. Ophelia ser. Dichotomae. Therefore, it seems that the genus Swertia originated in SW. China and then dispersed from there to N. and S. Asia, Africa, Europe and North America and formed the moderndistribution pattern of this genus.     

Studies on the Geographic Distribution,Origin and Dispersal of the Family Pinaceae Lindl.

Pinaceae Lindl., containing 10 genera and about 235 species, is the largest family in the extant conifers. It widely spreads in the Northern Hemisphere and plays a very important role in coniferous forests occurring in temperate to subtropical mountains. Numerous studies on this family have been carried out and the data dealing with many aspects of biosystematics of the Pinaceae have been accumulated. Based on the principle of unity of phylogeny and distribution of plants, and on the data from the studies of biosystematics of the Pinaceae, the present paper discusses the problems related to geographic distribution and phylogeny of the family in three respects as follows: (1) Floristic division of the Pinaceae is made based on Farjon's work (1990). Six regions and four subregions are outlined (Fig. 1). These are: I. the Mediterranean Region; II. the Eastern European and Siberian Region;III. the Eastern Asiatic Region, which can be further divided into two subregions, i. e. III a. the Northern Eastern Asiatic Subregion and III b. the Himalayas and Southern Eastern Asiatic Subregion; IV. the Western Northern American Region which also contains two subregions, namely IV a. the Northwestern North American Subregion and IV b. the Southwestern North American Subregion V. the Northern North American Region; VI. the Southeastern North American Region. The numbers of species occurring in all these floristic regions are shown in Table 1. The statistic results show that the Subregion III b is currently the richest in species of the Pinaceae. All the living genera are represented in this subregion, including three endemic genera: Keteleeria, Cathaya and Pseudolarix. The second richest area is the Subregion IV b which contains a great number of species. In fact, the two subregions are considered as counterparts. In addition, the Subregion III a and Subregion IV a, the Region II and Region V are also pairs of counterparts. The former pair has fewer but widely spread species, most of which are comparatively young probably developed from the extended refuges after the glacier period of the Quaternary. (2) The geographic distribution of all the genera are described and compared. The maps of their present ranges and their fossil localities are drawn. The four generic distribution patterns are detected: a) North Temperate areal type: containing four genera: Pinus, Picea, Larix and Abies; b) East Asian and North American disjunct areal type: including two genera:Tsuga and Pseudotsuga; c)Mediterranea-Himalayan areal type: containing only one genus: Cedrus; d) Himalayas and Southern Eastern Asiatic areal type: containing three genera: Keteleeria, Cathaya and Pseudolarix. The latter two are endemic to China. (3) The origin, differentiation and early migration of the Pinaceae are studied through the analyses of the data mainly on fossils ( including both extinct and extant genera ), paleogeography, paleoclimate and paleoflora. The main opinions of the present author are as follows: ① The Pinaceae was a large group of plants in geological stages, encompassing many genera with most of them becoming extinct after Mesozoic. The morden Pinaceae may be the offsprings of a few temperate-adapted members, However, they surpassed their ancestors and developed into the main components of current coniferous forests in north temperate zone to north subtropical mountainous regions. The modern Pinaceae is probably a derived group and its prosperity could be related to the emergence of temperate flora. ② Although the origin of the Pinaceae could be traced back to Jurassic or even Triassic, the occurrence of the modern genera of Pinaceae was merely from the Early Cretaceous to the Tertiary. ③ The genera of the Pinaceae may be differentiated in different stages and places. Pinus is possibly the earliest differentiated one among the extant genera. It might have its origin in Euramerican Paleocontinent during the period from Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous. The other genera might have not been diverged from their ancestral complex until the Late Cretaceous to the Tertiary, with one or two of them even until the Middle Tertiary. The place of the differentiation of these genera are supposed to be also restricted in Laurasia, but I intend to conside that it shifted to the North Pacific floristic region, where is currently the greatest diversity of the Pinaceae taxa. ④ Three main migration routes of early evolution of the Pinaceae are proposed here: a) European-American route: According to the information of paleogeology, eastern North America was once contiguous to western Europe as Euramerican Paleocontinent before the Cretaceous, but the two continents split gradually with the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. At the end of the Late Cretaceous, the two parts were still connected through Greenland and an Atlantic floristic region existed. The Euramerican Paleocontinent may be the place for differentiation of the Pinaceae in early stage, while the Atlantic floristic region was a migration route in the modern Pinaceae. b) Eurasiatic route: Before the Late Cretaceous, the Tethys Sea stretched from west to southeast of Eurasia. In the area north of the Tethys Sea, plants could disperse freely. By the Late Cretaceous, however, the existence of the West Siberian Sea and Turgai Straits restricted the exchanging of the Pinaceae plants between Europe and southeast Asia mainly to the coast of the Tethys Sea. Although the Tethys Sea disappeared later and the Himalayas arose, the area along the original coast of the Tethys Sea also remained as a route which played an important role in the dispersal and distribution of the modern Pinaceae. c) Paleoberingian route: At the beginning of the Late Cretaceous, eastern Asia was contiguous to the west of North America through Paleoberingia and formed “Asia-America” landmass. This situation did not cease till Pliocene. The paleoberingian route existed on the basis of this situation, playing a main role in dispersal of the morden Pinaceae between eastern Asia and western North America. There are many taxa ( generic or infrageneric ) in the modern Pinaceae with the patterns which belong to “East Asian and North American disjunct areal type” . The formation of the pattern ismostly related to the existence of the Paleoberingian route. ⑤ The existence of the above mentioned three migration routes is the basis for wide distribution of the Pinaceae in the Northern Hemisphere. In addition, the distribution patterns of the extant genera have formed as the results of the tectonic movements and the changes in paleoclimate and paleoflora since the Tertiary. 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Low and annually variable migratory connectivity in a long‐distance migrant: Whinchats Saxicola rubetra may show a bet‐hedging strategy

The spatial scale of non‐breeding areas used by long‐distance migrant animals can vary from specific, relatively small non‐breeding areas for each independent breeding population (high connectivity) to a distribution over a large non‐breeding area with mixing of breeding populations (low connectivity). Measuring variation in the degree of connectivity and how it arises is crucial to predict how migratory animals can respond to global habitat and climate change because low connectivity is likely to be an adaptation to environmental uncertainty. Here, we assess whether use of non‐breeding areas in a long‐distance migrant may be stochastic by measuring the degree of connectivity, and whether it is annually variable. Twenty‐nine wintering Whinchats tagged with geolocators over 2 years within 40 km² in central Nigeria were found to be breeding over 2.55 million km² (26% of the land area of Europe), without an asymptote being approached in the relationship between area and sample size. Ranges differed in size between years by 1.51 million km² and only 15% of the total breeding range across both years overlapped (8% overlap between years when only first‐year birds were considered), well above the range size difference and below the proportion of overlap that would be predicted from two equivalent groups breeding at random locations within the observed range. Mean distance between breeding locations (i.e. migratory spread) differed significantly between years (604 ± 18 km in 2013 and 869 ± 33 km in 2014). The results showed very low and variable connectivity that was reasonably robust to the errors and assumptions inherent in the use of geolocators, but with the caveat of having only ranges of 2 years to compare, and the sensitivity of range to the breeding locations of a small number of individuals. However, if representative, the results suggest the scope for between‐year variation (cohort effects) to determine migrant distribution on a large scale. Furthermore, for species with similarly low connectivity, we would predict breeding population trends to reflect average conditions across large non‐breeding areas: thus, as large areas of Africa become subject to habitat loss, migrant populations throughout Europe will decline.     

Genetic characterization of an avian H4N6 influenza virus isolated from the Izumi plain,Japan

An influenza A virus of H4N6 subtype was isolated from the Izumi plain, Japan, in 2013. Genetic analyses revealed that two viral genes (M and NS gene segments) of this isolate were genetically distinct from those of the H4N6 virus isolated from the same place in 2012. Furthermore, three viral genes (PB2, PB1 and M gene segments) of this isolate share high similarity with those of the North American isolates of 2014. These results suggest a high frequency of genetic reassortment of avian influenza viruses in Asian waterfowl and intercontinental movements of avian influenza viruses via migratory waterfowl.