Today's Customary International Law of the Sea

International courts and tribunals, governments, and scholars over the past half-century (many in the past two decades) have identified various provisions of the 1958 and 1982 treaties on the law of the sea that are customary international law and thus binding on all states, including those not party to these treaties. This article systematically collects these opinions and identifies provisions that have not yet attracted their attention.     

Stronger regional biosecurity is essential to prevent hundreds of harmful biological invasions

Biological invasions often transcend political boundaries, but the capacity of countries to prevent invasions varies. How this variation in biosecurity affects the invasion risks posed to the countries involved is unclear. We aimed to improve the understanding of how the biosecurity of a country influences that of its neighbours. We developed six scenarios that describe biological invasions in regions with contiguous countries. Using data from alien species databases, socio‐economic and biodiversity data and species distribution models, we determined where 86 of 100 of the world's worst invasive species are likely to invade and have a negative impact in the future. Information on the capacity of countries to prevent invasions was used to determine whether such invasions could be avoided. For the selected species, we predicted 2,523 discrete invasions, most of which would have significant negative impacts and are unlikely to be prevented. Of these invasions, approximately a third were predicted to spread from the country in which the species first establishes to neighbouring countries where they would cause significant negative impacts. Most of these invasions are unlikely to be prevented as the country of first establishment has a low capacity to prevent invasions or has little incentive to do so as there will be no impact in that country. Regional biosecurity is therefore essential to prevent future harmful biological invasions. In consequence, we propose that the need for increased regional co‐operation to combat biological invasions be incorporated in global biodiversity targets.     

A study on thermal environment for physically handicapped persons. Results from Japanese-Hungarian joint experiment in 1990

1. 1. For the scientific evaluation of thermal environment in relatin to human health and comfort, a number of indices have been proposed in the recent 70 years.

2. 2. However, even the newest indices are still not sufficient to explain the general thermal environment for all people including infants, the aged, the disabled etc., because such indices are based more or less on experiments using college age persons.

3. 3. Series of studies to find required thermal conditions for the disabled and the aged have been carried out from 1976 in Japan and from 1988 in Hungary.

4. 4. In 1990, the Japanese and Hungarian research groups have collaborated in an international joint experiment on the thermal environment for the disabled.

5. 5. This paper reports on the results from the first step examinations of the data from above mentioned joint experiment.

Migration comes of age

The Age of Migration has been uniquely successful as a student text on international migration, not only filling a niche but defining the field. This review article documents the evolution of the five editions of the book in terms of its core structure and enlarging scope. In a more critical vein, I note some omissions and potential shortcomings, while acknowledging the subjectivity of my perspective. More attention could have been given to the mobilities paradigm, transnationalism, internal and return migration, and quantitative analyses. Nevertheless, this book has done more than any other to ensure that the academic study of migration now occupies a central place in the social sciences.     

Survey of medical training in cytopathology carried out by the journal Cytopathology

Anshu, A. Herbert, B. Cochand‐Priollet, P. Cross, M. Desai, R. Dina, J. Duskova, A. Evered, A. Farnsworth, W. Gray, S. S. Gupta, K. Kapila, I. Kardum‐Skelin, V. Kloboves‐Prevodnik, T. K. Kobayashi, H. Koutselini, W. Olszewski, B. Onal, M. B. Pitman, ?. Marin?ek, T. Sauer, U. Schenck, F. Schmitt, I. Shabalova, J. H. F. Smith, E. Tani, L. Vass, P. Vielh and H. Wiener
Survey of medical training in cytopathology carried out by the journal Cytopathology This report of the Editorial Advisory Board of Cytopathology gives the results of a survey of medical practitioners in cytopathology, which aimed to find out their views on the current situation in undergraduate and postgraduate training in their institutions and countries. The results show that training in cytopathology and histopathology are largely carried out at postgraduate level and tend to be organized nationally rather than locally. Histopathology was regarded as essential for training in cytopathology by 89.5% of respondents and was mandatory according to 83.1%. Mandatory cytopathology sections of histopathology were reported by 67.3% and specific examinations in cytopathology by 55.4%. The main deficiencies in training were due to its variability; there were insufficient numbers of pathologists interested in cytology and a consequent lack of training to a high level of competence. Pathologists without specific training in cytopathology signed out cytology reports according to 54.7% of responses, more often in centres where training was 3–6 months or less duration. Although 92.2% of respondents thought that specialist cytology should not be reported by pathologists without experience in general cytopathology, that practice was reported by 30.9%, more often in centres with small workloads. The survey report recommends that 6–12 months should be dedicated to cytopathology during histopathology training, with optional additional training for those wanting to carry out independent practice in cytopathology. Formal accreditation should be mandatory for independent practice in cytopathology. When necessary, temporary placements to centres of good practice should be available for trainees intending to practise independently in cytopathology. There should be adequate numbers of pathologists trained in cytopathology to a high level of competence; some of their time could be released by training cytotechnologists and trainee pathologists to prescreen cytology slides and assess adequacy of fine‐needle aspiration samples when immediate diagnosis was not required. The survey demonstrated a clear need for European and international guidelines for training in cytopathology.     

稻飞虱:国际视野下的中国问题

稻飞虱对日本水稻的危害已有数百年历史,日本人对稻飞虱的研究也超过了一个世纪,而国际水稻研究所(IRRI)在热带稻区为治理稻飞虱也已努力了近40年。本文综述了日本、国际水稻研究所(IRRI)对稻飞虱的研究与治理,提出了我国稻飞虱研究的发展方向。作者认为,稻飞虱的问题首先是个国际问题,我们的虫源在境外,因此必须走出国门掌握一手虫情;同时需要逐步扩大国际合作,尽早转变思路,以国际眼光研究和解决中国的飞虱问题。     

低聚乳果糖酶法制备的研究进展

低聚乳果糖是一种新型功能性低聚糖,是双歧杆菌的有效增殖因子。本文主要介绍了低聚乳果糖国内外研究状况、产品类型、安全性;重点介绍低聚乳果糖酶法制备方法,微生物来源,现有酶的改造修饰,并对制约低聚乳果糖发展的瓶颈问题简单概述。     

Measuring the performance of international genomics research projects in fostering genomic capacity in the developing world

Therapeutic applications of genomic medicine are slowly finding their way into the healthcare framework of developing countries. The establishment of equitable innovation policies is a determining factor in how genomic-based therapeutic applications will evolve in these countries. In the biomedical field, the commercialization of research results has established itself as the dominant paradigm in the innovation system. However, many recent studies have demonstrated that this emphasis on commercialization and the protection of intellectual property has led to disappointing results. A growing number of stakeholders in this debate argue that it is now necessary to go beyond the commercialization of research and implement policies based on the research valorization paradigm, which supports the achievement of social as well as economic objectives. We thus propose a new set of more inclusive research performance indicators to help policymakers measure the impact of international genomics projects on developing countries.     

Serologic prevalence of antibodies to Helicobacter pylori in internationally adopted children

Background. Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection has been linked to gastritis, diarrhea, peptic ulcers, failure‐to‐thrive, anemia, as well as predisposition to gastric malignancies. Because many internationally adopted children have diarrhea, failure‐to‐thrive, and anemia on arrival to the US, we determined the prevalence of HP antibodies among these children. Methods. Serum samples from 226 unselected children from 18 countries who were evaluated in the International Adoption Clinic at New England Medical Center were tested for antibodies to H. pylori. The results of serologic screening were analyzed in relation to age at adoption, site of residence prior to adoption, weight and height, and the presence or absence of anemia, diarrhea, or intestinal parasites. Results. 31% of internationally adopted children had antibodies to H. pylori. The presence of H. pylori‐antibodies was associated with residence in an orphanage (vs. foster care) prior to adoption, older age at adoption, and coinfection with intestinal parasites. No direct effects on height or weight were identified; no associations with diarrhea or anemia were found. Conclusions. Internationally adopted children have a high incidence of exposure to H. pylori, as diagnosed serologically. Residence in an orphanage (compared with foster care), older age at adoption, and coinfection with intestinal parasites were more common among children seropositive for anti‐H. pylori antibodies.     

THE CLAIM FROM ADOPTION REVISITED

In a recent paper published in this journal, Thomas S. Petersen makes a qualified defense of what he calls ‘the Claim from Adoption’, according to which, ‘instead of expending resources on bringing new children [in developed countries] into the world using reproductive technology and caring for these children, we ought to devote these resources to the adoption and care of existing destitute children’. My purpose in this paper is not to discuss Petersen’s argument in favor of that claim. Rather, I want to show that, even if the Claim from Adoption might be, other things being equal, true, it is not true all things considered. What is, all things considered, true is a much more complex set of statements, including a general prima facie obligation to adopt, as well as an obligation by the state of developed countries to discourage procreation and promote adoption of destitute children.