Endogenous and environmental factors influence 35S promoter methylation of a maize A1 gene construct in transgenic petunia and its colour phenotype

Summary 30000 transgenic petunia plants carrying a single copy of the maize A1 gene, encoding a dihydroflavonol reductase, which confers a salmon red flower colour phenotype on the petunia plant, were grown in a field test. During the growing season plants with flowers deviating from this salmon red colour, such as those showing white or variegated phenotypes and plants with flowers exhibiting only weak pigmentation were observed with varying frequencies. While four white flowering plants were shown at the molecular level to be mutants in which part of the A1 gene had been deleted, other white flowering plants, as well as 13 representative plants tested out of a total of 57 variegated individuals were not mutants but rather showed hypermethylation of the 35S promoter directing A1 gene expression. This was in contrast to the homogeneous fully red flowering plants in which no methylation of the 35S promoter was observed. While blossoms on plants flowering early in the season were predominantly red, later flowers on the same plants showed weaker coloration. Once again the reduction of the A1-specific phenotype correlated with the methylation of the 35S promoter. This variation in coloration seems to be dependent not only on exogenous but also on endogenous factors such as the age of the parental plant from which the seed was derived or the time at which crosses were made.     

DNA radiation damage and asymmetric somatic hybridization: Is UV a potential substitute or supplement to ionising radiation in fusion experiments?

Recent reports have revealed that the asymmetric nature of the nuclear genome of somatic hybrids, produced following the irradiation of one of the parents with X- or gamma rays, is generally much less than had been anticipated. As a consequence, we have begun to investigate whether UV radiation might be used as an alternative or indeed a supplement to the presently-used ionising radiation techniques in such experiments. Cell culture studies have revealed that UV radiation induces the desired physiological effects in sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris ) protoplasts, namely, a prevention of cell division without immediate cytotoxicity. Preliminary studies using denaturing and pulsed field gel electrophoresis have shown that UV can also induce substantial physical fragmentation of DNA. When using the same techniques, less breakdown was observed following gamma radiation. All results were highly reproducible. Such results augur well for the potential use of UV in asymmetric somatic cell fusion experiments.     

Vertical profiles of CH4 concentrations,dissolved substrates and processes involved in CH4 production in a flooded Italian rice field

Vertical profiles were measured in soil cores taken from flooded rice fields in the Po valley during July and August 1990. Methane concentrations generally increased with depth and reached maximum values of 150–500 μM in 5–13 cm depth. However, the shape of the profiles was very different when studying different soil cores. The CH₄ content of gas bubbles showed a similar variability which apparently was due to spatial rather than temporal inhomogeneities. Similar inhomogeneities were observed in the vertical profiles of acetate, propionate, lactate, and formate which showed maximum values of 1500, 66, 135, and 153, μM, respectively. However, maxima and minima of the vertical profiles of the different substates usually coincided in one particular soil core. Large inhomogeneities in the vertical profiles were also observed for the rates of total CH₄ production, however, the percentage contribution of H₂/CO₂ to CH₄ production was relatively homogeneous at 24 ± 7% (SD). Similarly, the H₂ content of gas bubbles was relatively constant at 93.3 ± 9.6 ppmv when randomly sampled in the rice field at different times of the day. A small contribution (6%) of H₂/CO₂ to acetate production was also observed. Vertical profiles of the respiratory index (RI) for [2-¹⁴C] acetate showed that acetate was predominantly degraded by methanogenesis in 5–11 cm depth, but by respiration in the surface soil (3 cm depth) and in soil layers below 13–16 cm depth which coincided with a transition of the colour (grey to reddish) and the physical characteristics (porosity, density) of the soil. The observations indicate that the microbial community which degrades organic matter to CH₄ is in itself relatively homogenous, but operates at highly variable rates within the soil structure. Author for correspondence     

The control of cellulose microfibril deposition in the cell wall of higher plants

In maize (Zea mays L.) and pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings, cellulose microfibril impressions are present on freeze-fractured plasma membranes. It has been proposed that impressions of newly synthesized microfibrils are a record of the movement of terminal synthesizing complexes through the plasma membrane (Mueller and Brown, 1980, J. Cell Biol. 84, 315–326). The association of terminal complexes with the ends of microfibril impressions or with the ends of microfibrils torn through the membrane indicates the orientation of microfibril tips. Unidirectionally-oriented microfibril tips (all pointing in the same direction) are associated with the organized deposition of parallel arrays of microfibrils. Multidirectionally-oriented microfibril tips were observed in a cell in which microfibril deposition was unusually disorganized. Microfibril patterns around pit fields are asymmetric and resemble flow patterns. Unidirectionally-oriented tears are associated with these microfibrils. Although microfibril orientations are deflected around pit fields, the main axis of microfibril orientation is maintained across the surface of the cell. The hypothesis is proposed that the interaction of a flowing plasma membrane with microfibril synthesizing complexes in the plane of the membrane may result in unidirectional deposition and asymmetric microfibril impressions around pit fields.Some of this work has been published in preliminary form (Brown 1979)     

Electric field-induced fusion of isolated vacuoles and protoplasts of different developmental and metabolic provenience

Using an electric field pulse technique, we induced fusion between vacuoles and protoplasts of Kalanchoë daigremontiana , between protoplasts from etiolated and green leaf mesophyll, and between mesophyll protoplasts from plants of different physiological properties ( Avena sativa : C₃ mechanism of photosynthesis, Kalanchoë daigremontiana : crassulacean acid metabolism). Close membrane contact amongst protoplasts or between protoplasts and vacuoles (as required for fusion) was achieved by the application of an alternating, non-uniform electric field to the suspension. Due to the dielectrophoresis effect the cells attach to each other along the field lines. The fusion process is initiated by the injection of an electric field pulse of high intensity and short duration (μs range). The field intensity has to be sufficiently high to induce reversible breakdown in the area of close membrane contact. After the application of the field pulse, the fusion process is initiated and completed within seconds to a few minutes, depending on the material investigated.
Fusion occurs between protoplasts and vacuoles as well as between protoplasts of different species. Both tonoplast and plasma membranes completely intermingled, indicating that in contrast to suggestions in the literature these membranes are compatible. Furthermore the cytoplasms of etiolated and green protoplasts obviously do not mix after fusion is completed, as etioplasts and chloroplasts kept separated from each other. In all experiments the volume of the fusion product equalled the sum of the compartments that underwent fusion. The wide spectrum of possible applications resulting from these fusion experiments in relation to metabolic problems is discussed.     

High frequency fusion of plant protoplasts by electric fields

Mesophyll cell protoplasts of Vicia faba were collected by dielectrophoresis in a highly inhomogeneous alternating electric field (sine wave, 5 to 10 V peak-to-peak value, 500 kHz, electrode distance 200 m). Under these conditions, the cells formed aggregates of two or three on the electrodes or bridges consisting of 4 to 6 protoplasts between the electrodes. This pearl chain arrangement of the cells was only stable for the duration of the applied field. By the additional application of a high single field pulse (square wave, 15 V, 50 s), it was possible to induce cell fusion within the aggregates or bridges. This electrically stimulated fusion of cells proceeded at room temperature and under physiological pH-conditions, without the use of chemical reagents, and gave a high yield. Smaller fused aggregates formed spheres within a few minutes. During the dielectrophoretically induced adhesion of the protoplasts to one another, the field strength must be chosen such that dielectric breakdown of the membrane is avoided, but at the same time, the strength of the subsequently applied single field pulse must be high enough to induce dielectric breakdown at the sites of contact between the protoplast membranes. From these results, one can conclude that in addition to close contact between membranes, the prerequisite for electrically stimulated cell fusion is dielectric breakdown which leads to changes in the membrane conductance, permeability, and probably fluidity.Presented at II Congress FESPP, Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 27.7.–1.8.1980, and Gordon Research Conference of Bioelectrochemistry, Tilton, New Hampshire, USA, 4.8.–8.8.1980     

Tissue specific variation of C-glycosylflavone patterns in oat leaves as influenced by the environment

A comparison is made between the flavone patterns accumulating in epidermal tissues and in the mesophyll of oat primary leaves grown in a phytotron and under field conditions. In developing leaves cultivated under standard conditions, varying patterns of two vitexin-derived O-rhamnosides and of one isovitexin O-arabinoside are produced in the basal region as the result of basal meristem activity. These patterns are tissue specific and differ quantitatively in the epidermis and the mesophyll. During the course of subsequent growth and differentiation, this pattern is constant as the compounds are moved upwards due to basipetal leaf growth. In comparison, the flavone patterns generated in the basal section of leaves grown in the field do not vary significantly. There is the additional accumulation of isoorientin O-arabinoside. Again flavone patterns are tissue specific, but in contrast to standard growth they are modified characteristically in those leaf tissues which are already morphologically differentiated. It is possible that the isovitexin moiety of the O-arabinoside is oxidized to the corresponding isoorientin derivative in the mesophyll. Moreover, field-grown leaves show a two-fold increase in flavone content in each leaf epidermis and a six-fold increase in the mesophyll when compared to the corresponding tissues of phytotron-grown leaves.     

Soybean leaf photosynthesis in relation to maturity classification and stage of growth

Leaf photosynthetic rates were measured on field-grown soybeans during the 1980 season. Comparisons were made between different cultivars and isolines representative of maturity groups I–IV. Mature, fully expanded leaves at different nodes on the plant were measured in high light to determine which had the highest potential photosynthetic rates at any one time. Successive leaves during the growing season had maximum rates which increased from about 22 mol CO₂ m^-2 s^-1 on 25 June to a peak of 30–44 mol CO₂ m^-2 s^-1 in early August.The persistency and eventual decline in the maximum rate was associated with the maturity group and related dates of flowering, pod fill and onset of senescence. Early maturing cultivars (groups I and II) had higher peak rates (38–44 mol CO₂ m^-2 s^-1) than later maturing cultivars (30–35 mol CO₂ m^-2 s^-1, groups III and IV). However, the photosynthetic rates of early maturing cultivars declined rapidly after attaining their peak, whereas the leaves of later maturing cultivars maintained their photosynthetic activity for much longer.