New Sivapithecus postcranial specimens from the Siwaliks of Pakistan

Several new postcranial elements of Sivapithecus from the Siwaliks of Pakistan are described. These include a distal femur from the U-level of the Dhok Pathan Formation, a navicular from the Chinji Formation, and seven manual and pedal phalanges from the Nagri Formation. The functional morphology of these elements adds new detail to the reconstruction ofSivapithecus positional behavior. Femoral cross-sectional geometry indicates that the shaft was adapted to support mediolaterally directed loading. Femoral condylar asymmetry and a broad but shallow trochlea are distinctly ape-like, revealing capabilities for both rotation and withstanding eccentric loading in the knee. The navicular is characterized by features relating to a broad mid-tarsus and broad distal articulations for the cuneiforms. It also lacks a navicular tubercle as in Pongo. These features suggest that the foot was capable of a powerful grip on large supports, with an inversion/supination capability that would permit foot placement in a variety of positions. The morphology of the new phalanges, including evidence for a relatively large pollex, similarly suggests powerful grasping, consistent with prior evidence from the hallux and tarsus. The functional features of the new specimens permit refinement of previous interpretations of Sivapithecus positional capabilities. They suggest a locomotor repertoire dominated by pronograde activities and also such antipronograde activities as vertical climbing and clambering, but not by antipronograde suspensory activities as practiced by extant apes.     

Sperm competition selects for increased testes mass in Australian frogs

Game theory predicts that investment in spermatogenesis will increase with the risk and intensity of sperm competition. Widespread support for this prediction has come from comparative studies of internal fertilizing species reporting positive associations between testes mass and the probability that females mate with more than one male. Data for external fertilizers have generated conflicting results. We investigated how risk of sperm competition affects testes size in two families of Australian frogs: the Myobatrachidae and the Hylidae. We also examined effects of clutch size, egg size and oviposition location as alternative factors that might influence sperm production. Species were ranked according to probability of group spawning, and hence risk of sperm competition. Controlling for body size and phylogenetic relationships, we demonstrated that within the Myobatrachidae, the risk of sperm competition explained a significant amount of variation in testes mass. Oviposition location had a weak influence, with species ovipositing into foam having smaller testes. No significant effects of clutch size or egg size were detected. In hylids, the relationship between testes mass and risk of sperm competition was positive but not significant, again with no predictable effects related to egg size or number. These data provide an important test of sperm competition theory for externally fertilizing taxa.     

Features of Temporal Differentiation of the Chum Salmon Oncorhynchus ketaof the Anadyr Bay Region at Different Abundance Levels

The temporal heterogeneity of chum salmon stock of the Anadyr Bay region was investigated on the basis of a set of discrete external morphological features and fluctuating asymmetry level of some meristic structures. Differentiation of Anadyr Bay chum salmon during the spawning run was found to be associated with the abundance level of spawning stock in a particular year. Sharply pronounced temporal heterogeneity, based on the investigated characteristics, in the area near the river mouth can be considered as an indicator of the subsequent deficiency of spawners on the spawning grounds of rivers in the Anadyr Bay region.     

Densitometry from digitized images of X-radiographs: Methodology for measurement of coral skeletal density

Skeletons of massive coral colonies contain annual density bands that are revealed by X-radiography of slices cut along growth axes. These bands allow measurement of skeletal growth parameters such as annual extension rate and annual calcification rate. Such measurements have been important in understanding coral growth, in assessing environmental impacts and in recovering proxy environmental information. Measurements of coral calcification rate from annual density banding require measurements of skeletal density along tracks across skeletal slices and, until now, such density measurements have depended upon specialized and expensive equipment. Here, we describe a straightforward, inexpensive and accurate technique for measuring skeletal density from digitized images of X-radiographs of coral skeletal slices. An aragonitic step-wedge was included in each X-radiograph of a coral slice together with two aluminium bars positioned along the anode-cathode axis. Optical density was measured along tracks across the X-ray images of these different objects. The aragonite step-wedge provided a standard for converting optical density to skeletal density. The aluminium bars were used to correct for the heel effect—a variation in the intensity of the X-ray beam along the anode-cathode axis that would, otherwise, introduce large errors into measurements of skeletal density. Exposure was found to vary from X-radiographs to X-radiograph, necessitating the inclusion of the calibration standards in each X-radiograph of a coral slice. Results obtained using this technique compared well with results obtained by direct gamma densitometry of skeletal slices.     

DasFestuca vivipara-Problem in den Alpen

The differences betweenFestuca vivipara (tetraploid) andF. ovina subsp.supina (diploid), two often confused taxa, are demonstrated in regard to morphology, leaf anatomy, ecology and distribution. New maps illustrate the distribution ofF. vivipara in the Alps and the Northern Hemisphere. The development of different polyploidy levels withinF. vivipara as a consequence of occasional sexual processes is discussed. (English Summary on p. 39.)

     

Acoustic and Morphological Differentiation in the Frog Allobates femoralis: Relationships with the Upper Madeira River and Other Potential Geological Barriers

We studied patterns of call acoustics and external morphological differentiation in populations of the dart-poison frog Allobates femoralis occurring in forested areas along a 250-km stretch of the upper Madeira River, Brazil. Multivariate analyses of variance using principal components representing shared acoustic and morphological parameters distinguished three groups in relation to call structure and external morphology: (1) populations belonging to a two-note call morphotype; (2) populations with four-note calls inhabiting the left riverbank; and (3) populations with four-note calls inhabiting the right riverbank. Our results report a case of Amazonian anuran diversity hidden by current taxonomy and provide evidence for the upper Madeira River being a boundary between distinct populations of A. femoralis , and suggest a new taxonomic interpretation for these groups. Samples that did not fit into the general differentiation pattern and the existence of a well-defined contact zone between two morphotypes on the left riverbank indicate that mechanisms complementary to river-barrier hypotheses are necessary to explain the phenotypic differentiation between populations. Our study shows that at least one anuran species shows congruence between population differentiation and separation by a large Amazonian river, as documented for birds and mammals. Conservation efforts should not consider the taxon now known as A. femoralis as a homogeneous entity. There is much within-taxon variability, which can be probably explained partly by the existence of cryptic species, partly by geological barriers and part of which currently has no obvious explanation.     

Potamotrygon marquesi,a new species of neotropical freshwater stingray (Potamotrygonidae) from the Brazilian Amazon Basin

Potamotrygon marquesi, sp. nov., is described and compared with other species of Potamotrygon occurring in the Amazon Basin. The identity of this new species is supported by an extensive external and internal morphological study including coloration pattern, squamation, skeleton and ventral lateral-line canals. Morphometrics and meristics were used to further distinguish P. marquesi from congeners. Potamotrygon marquesi was first considered to fall within the range of variation found in P. motoro. However, even with an extensive variation in coloration observed in P. motoro, this new species presents a series of autapomorphies that confidently distinguishes it from what is understood as the morphological variation found in P. motoro. Additional morphological characters that diagnose P. marquesi include three angular cartilages, asymmetrical star-shaped denticles, a single regular row of spines on tail dorsum, lateral row of caudal spines near the sting insertion, dorsal disc background in beige and grey mixed with shades of grey and bearing open and closed bicolored rings, among others. Although presenting a gap of distribution along the west–east extension of the Amazon Basin, its diagnostic charactistics are consistent in both recorded regions. Our study supports the need for many morphological characters to robustly distinguish members of Potamotrygoninae considering their extremely variable dorsal disc color pattern.     

Ontogeny and tissue differentiation of the pelvic girdle and hind limbs of anurans

We present the ontogeny of the integrated musculoskeletal complex that comprises the pelvic girdle and hind limbs of anurans. Our histological data show that the pelvic girdle originates from a single mesenchymatic condensation. The tissue differentiation sequence is cartilage, muscle and tendon. The intrusion of the ischiadic nerve into the limb bud is produced very early in ontogeny. The pre‐cartilage appears in the pre‐motile stage. Therefore, the nerve produces a movement analogous to the ‘embryonic motility’ that would induce the emergence of the pre‐cartilage. The acetabulum is the first of all cavitation processes to form, the second one being the knee. The acetabulum appears before the muscles are mature, although it has been stressed that the muscle contraction maintains joint progenitors committed to their fate. Our data indicate an explosive differentiation of all 11 muscular masses together. We provide three new characters that support the monophyly of Hyloides, Acosmanura and Neobatrachia.     

Mechanisms of host discrimination and intraspecific competition in the aphid parasitoid Ephedrus cerasicola

The aphid parasitoid Ephedrus cerasicola Starý (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) discriminates between parasitized and unparasitized aphid hosts (Myzus persicae (Sulzer), Homoptera: Aphididae) in two different ways. By antennal contact with the parasitized host, it can detect an external marking pheromone which is effective only for a few hours. The behaviour of the parasitoid also indicated that it responded to an internal marker, probably by means of chemoreceptors on the ovipositor. The parasitoid behaviour was studied in encounters with parasitized hosts 0–10 min, 2–3 h, 6–7 h and 23–24 h after the first parasitization. Aphids were superparasitized within 1 h or after 24 h, and aphids in each experiment were later dissected at two different times. It is suggested that the supernumerary offspring were eliminated by chemical means, whether the time between the two ovipositions was 0–1 h or 24 h.

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Résumé Le parasitoïde de puceron, E. cerasicola Starý (Hym.: Aphidiidae) sélectionne les pucerons, Myzus persicae (Sulzer), parasités ou non, de deux façons différentes. Il peut percevoir une phéromone externe de marquage perceptible seulement pendant quelques heures par contact antennaire. Son comportement montre qu'il réagit aussi à un marquage interne, probablement par des chémorécepteurs de sa tarière. Le comportement du parasitoïde a été étudié en le mettant en contact avec des hôtes parasités depuis 0–10 min, 2–3 h, 6–7 h et 23–24 h. Les pucerons ont été surparasités pendant la première heure ou après 24 heures. Les pucerons de toutes les expériences ont été disséqués à deux moments différents. Ceci a conduit à estimer que les descendants en surnombre ont été éliminés chimiquement quand la période entre deux pontes successives était inférieure à 1 h ou supérieure à 24 h.