Characters of Leaf Epidermis and Their Systematic Significance in Menispermaceae

The epidermal characters of mature leaves of 29 genera, 50 species and 3 varieties (totally 56 samples) representing all the 5 tribes in the family Menispermaceae were examined under the light microscope. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) The shape of the epidermal cells is polygonal or irregular, and the anticlinal walls are straight or waved in the family. In some genera a special arrangement of epidermal cells is named as “rosette-cell arrangement" for the first time. The lower epidermal cells were found to have a papilla in Stephania, Diploclisia and Legnephora . (2) In some genera, the anticlinal walls are oblique, rather than perpendicular, to the surface. (3) The stomatal apparatuses, generally restricted to the lower surface of the leaves, were assigned to anomocytic, staurocytic, cyclocytic, anisocytic and actinocytic types, and their distribution on the epidermis may be of diffuse pattern or island congregating pattern. (4) The cells of both upper and lower epidermis in the tribe Pachygoneae and Fibraureae are generally polygonal with straight or arched anticlinal walls, and the stomatal apparatuses are usually staurocytic and actinocytic. The cyclocytic stomatal apparatus was found only in two genera of the tribe Pachygoneae. By contrast, the epidermal cells of the tribes Anomospermeae, Tinosporeae and Menispermeae are generally irregular with waved anticlinal walls, and the stomatal apparatuses are predominantly anomocytic. These correlated characters are of much significance in delimiting tribes within the Menispermaceae, and also provide evidence for studies on systematic relationships of several genera.     

Genetics of a wing size difference between two Nasonia species

Very little is known about the genetics of morphological differences between species. This study investigates the genetic basis of a significant morphological difference between males of two closely related species of the parasitoid wasp Nasonia. One of the defining characters of species in the genus Nasonia is male forewing size. The forewings of Nasoniagiraulti males are 2.4 times larger than the forewings of Nasoniavitripennis males. Genetic analysis of hybrids between these species indicates that this difference is due to the effect of a few genes. Also discussed is the possible role of ‘pseudo linkage’ in analysis of F₂ hybrids. Pseudo linkage occurs when genes affecting a trait are linked to interacting hybrid lethal loci, and can lead to an overestimation of the number of regions involved in a phenotype. The large wing trait of N. giraulti was introgressed into a N. vitripennis background. Analysis of this introgression line indicates that 44% of the difference in wing size between the species is due to the presence of a single gene, or a few tightly linked genes, located on linkage group IV. Furthermore, the introgressed region appears to affect the width of the wing more strongly than the length. Indirect results suggest that this region affects wing cell size, rather than cell number. Results are consistent with the view that morphological and adaptive differences between species can have a simple genetic basis.     

Intraspecific variation in testis asymmetry in birds: evidence for naturally occurring compensation

In many taxa, the left and right testes often differ in size. The compensation hypothesis states that one testis of the pair serves as a ‘back-up’ for any reduced function in the other and provides a mechanism to explain intraspecific variation in degree and direction of gonad asymmetry. Although testis asymmetry is common in birds, evidence for natural testis compensation is unknown. Using a novel quantitative approach that can be applied to any bilateral organ or structure, we show that testis compensation occurs naturally in birds and can be complete when one testis fails to develop. Owing to a recurrent risk of testis impairment and an evolutionary trade-off between natural and sexual selections acting on the arrangement of internal organs in species with abdominal and/or seasonal testes, compensation adds an important, but neglected, dimension to measures of male reproductive investment.     

哺乳动物BMP4蛋白功能位点的进化踪迹分析

哺乳动物骨形态发生蛋白(BMPs)具有促进动物软骨形成,调节细胞增殖、分化及迁移的多种功能。此外,该蛋白在动物个体发育及人(Homo sapiens)肿瘤的发生、发展过程中也扮演着重要角色。本文以人源骨形态发生蛋白4(BMP4)为种子序列,利用多种生物信息学工具进行哺乳动物BMP4蛋白的序列查找及其同源蛋白的搜索,共得到具有完整结构域的同源蛋白序列72条,并以此为基础对哺乳动物BMP4的进化踪迹位点及相关的功能位点进行比较研究。结果表明,BMP4蛋白家族的TGFβ-propeptide结构域具22个全家族保守残基,而TGF-β结构域仅具84个亚家族特异性残基。人BMP4蛋白TGF-β结构域的配基结合位点主要分布于结合口袋的边缘区域。本研究可为BMP4蛋白重要功能区残基的确定及未知功能位点的预测提供信息。     

新疆若干植物群落对土壤和地下水指示性的初步研究

本文对北疆玛纳斯河流域和南疆策勒河流域共10种植物群落与土壤和地下水的关系进行了初步研究,分析了一些植物的指示意义。1．多枝柽柳是一种富Cl和S的植物,它所生长的土壤中Cl-和SO42-的含量较高．生长多枝柽柳群落的土壤盐化类型一般为氮化物、硫酸盐型1）。2．梭梭和白梭梭的化学元素类型很相似,它们都是富Na植物．土壤中Na+离子的相对含量一般在50%以上。3．琵琶柴在南疆多分布在砾质戈壁上,在北疆则多出现于黄土状母质上。一般说来,琵琶柴生长地段0—30cm土层内的盐分平均含量不超过1%。4．花花柴是一种潜水指示植物,它的地下水深度一般不超过3m。花花柴也是一种富S植物,土壤中SO42-离子的相对含量较高。5．疏叶骆驼刺是一种淡水指示植物。在南疆多生长在沙丘间低地和平沙地上．地下水深多在5m以下,土壤盐渍化较弱。6．铃铛刺也是潜水植物,在玛纳斯河流域它一般指示地下水深度在2—4m左右．该植物体内的低灰分含量与土壤弱盐渍化程度相联系。7．膜果麻黄生长在砾沙质的棕色荒漠土上,土体中有明显的石膏淀积层。8．黑刺是典型盐土植物,所在土壤0—30cm平均含盐量大于2%,黑刺是富Na和富Cl植物,土壤中Na+离子和Cl-离子的相对含量也较高。 9．昆仑蒿总是与昆仑黄土相联系,它是一种富K植物,可用来指示土壤中K的较高含量。     

Evolutionary and Ecological Effects of Multi-Generational Exposures to Anthropogenic Stressors

Biological and ecological responses to stress are dictated by duration and frequency, as well as instantaneous magnitude. Conditional compensatory responses at the physiological and behavioral levels, referred to as ‘acclimation’, may mitigate effects on individuals experiencing brief or infrequent periods of moderate stress. However, even modest stress over extended periods may reduce the fitness of some or all exposed individuals. In this way, specific stress that persists over multiple generations will increase probabilities for extinction of populations composed of sensitive individuals. For populations whose members demonstrate variance and heritability for stressor response, this selective loss of sensitive individuals may result in populations dominated by resistant individuals. The formation of these ‘adapted’ populations may be considered an ecological compensatory mechanism to multi-generational stress. Paradoxically, the biological costs to individuals of toxicity and physiological acclimation may result in obvious signs of stress in affected wildlife populations while the costs of genetic adaptation may be more covert. It is important to consider such costs because recent evidence suggests that anthropogenic stressors have acted as powerful selection agents that have modified the composition of wildlife populations subjected for successive generational exposures to specific stressors. This essay focuses on a case study where adaptation has been demonstrated in fish populations with a history of chronic exposure to persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic environmental contaminants. Because the magnitude, breadth and long-term outcomes of such changes are unknown, ecological risk assessments that are limited in focus to short-term exposures and consequences may seriously underestimate the ecological and evolutionary impacts of anthropogenic stressors.     

Pigmented eyes,photoreceptor‐like sense organs and central nervous system in the polychaete Scoloplos armiger (Orbiniidae,Annelida) and their phylogenetic importance

The phylogenetic position of Orbiniidae within Annelida is unresolved. Conflicting hypotheses place them either in a basal taxon Scolecida, close to Spionida, or in a basal position in Aciculata. Because Aciculata have a specific type of eye, the photoreceptive organs in the orbiniid Scoloplos armiger were investigated to test these phylogenetic hypotheses. Two different types of prostomial photoreceptor‐like sense organs were found in juveniles and one additional in subadults. In juveniles there are four ciliary photoreceptor‐like phaosomes with unbranched cilia and two pigmented eyes. The paired pigmented eyes lie beside the brain above the circumoesophageal connectives. Each consists of one pigmented cell, one unpigmented supportive cell and three everse rhabdomeric sensory cells with vestigial cilia. During development the number of phaosomes increases considerably and numerous unpigmented sense organs appear consisting of one rhabdomeric photoreceptor cell and one supportive cell. The development and morphology of the pigmented eyes of S. armiger suggest that they represent miniaturized eyes of the phyllodocidan type of adult eye rather than persisting larval eyes resulting in small inverse eyes typical of Scolecida. Moreover, the structure of the brain indicates a loss of the palps. Hence, a closer relationship of Orbiniidae to Phyllodocida is indicated. Due to a still extensive lack of ultrastructural data among polychaetes this conclusion cannot be corroborated by considering the structure of the unpigmented ciliary and rhabdomeric photoreceptor‐like sense organs. J. Morphol., 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A family of evolution-entropy hybrid methods for ranking protein residues by importance

In order to identify the amino acids that determine protein structure and function it is useful to rank them by their relative importance. Previous approaches belong to two groups; those that rely on statistical inference, and those that focus on phylogenetic analysis. Here, we introduce a class of hybrid methods that combine evolutionary and entropic information from multiple sequence alignments. A detailed analysis in insulin receptor kinase domain and tests on proteins that are well-characterized experimentally show the hybrids' greater robustness with respect to the input choice of sequences, as well as improved sensitivity and specificity of prediction. This is a further step toward proteome scale analysis of protein structure and function.     

Two Explanations of Evolutionary Progress

Natural selection explains how living forms are fitted to theirconditions of life. Darwin argued that selection also explains what hecalled the gradual advancement of the organisation, i.e.evolutionary progress. Present-day selectionists disagree. In theirview, it is happenstance that sustains conditions favorable to progress,and therefore happenstance, not selection, that explains progress. Iargue that the disagreement here turns not on whether there exists aselection-based condition bias – a belief now attributed to Darwin – but on whether there needs to be such a bias for selection to count as explaining progress. In Darwin's own view, selection explained progressso far as more complex organisms have the selective advantage whenselection operates unimpeded. I show that these two explanations ofevolutionary progress, selection and happenstance, answer for theirobjectivity to different standards, and for their truth or falsehood todifferent features of the world.