The contribution of PAS 2050 to the evolution of international greenhouse gas emission standards

Background, aim, and scope  The assessment of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions arising from products (goods and services) is emerging as a high profile application of life cycle assessment (LCA), with an increasing desire from retailers and other supply chain organizations to better understand, and in some cases communicate, the carbon footprint of products. Publicly Available Specification 2050:2008, Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services, addresses the single-impact category of global warming to provide a standardized and simplified implementation of process LCA methods for assessing GHG emissions from products. This paper briefly reviews the development process followed for PAS 2050, before examining the treatment of GHG-specific contribution of PAS 2050 to product carbon footprinting. Materials and methods  PAS 2050 was jointly sponsored by the Carbon Trust and the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and was published by the British Standards Institution on 29 October 2008. An independent steering group oversaw the development of the specification, including the establishment of an expert workgroup program, comprehensive international consultation, and expert input on the requirements of the specification. Results  The development process for PAS 2050 resulted in a specification that includes specific requirements that limit the interpretation of the underlying LCA approach to product carbon footprinting. These requirements, including goal setting and life cycle inventory assessment, aspects of system boundary identification and temporal aspects of GHG emissions, clarify the approach to be taken by organizations implementing product carbon footprinting, and simplify the application of LCA procedures in relation to product carbon footprinting. Discussion  Assessment of the emissions arising from the life cycle of products has a clear international component, and delivering consistent results across the supply chain requires the application of consistent methods. There is an emerging recognition that further standardization of methods for product carbon footprinting is needed, and the specific requirements resulting from the PAS 2050 development process make a valuable contribution across a range of GHG assessment issues. Conclusions  The widespread interest in PAS 2050 from individuals and organizations, together with the development of similar guidance by other organizations, confirmed that there is a need for clarification, certainty, and requirements in the field of product carbon footprint analysis. The use of PAS 2050 to refine, clarify, and simplify existing LCA methods and standards has resulted in specific approaches to key GHG assessment issues being developed; it is important that future standards development work considers the impact of these approaches and their further refinement. Recommendations and perspectives  It is the consumption of goods and services by individuals around the world that drives global GHG emission, and PAS 2050 is a first attempt to provide integrated, consistent approaches that directly address the role of consumption at the product level in contributing to GHG emissions. Climate science and GHG assessment techniques are both evolving areas and it will be necessary to review the approach taken by PAS 2050 in the future: a formal review process for PAS 2050 will commence towards the end of 2009 and practitioners are encouraged to participate in this review process.

Future energy potential of Miscanthus in Europe

European field experiments have demonstrated Miscanthus can produce some of the highest energy yields per hectare of all potential energy crops. Previous modelling studies using MISCANMOD have calculated the potential energy yield for the EU27 from mean historical climate data (1960–1990). In this paper, we have built on the previous studies by further developing a new Miscanthus crop growth model MISCANFOR in order to analyse (i) interannual variation in yields for past and future climates, (ii) genotype-specific parameters on yield in Europe. Under recent climatic conditions (1960–1990) we show that 10% of arable land could produce 1709 PJ and mitigate 30 Tg of carbon dioxide-carbon (CO₂-C) equivalent greenhouse gasses (GHGs) compared with EU27 primary energy consumption of 65 598 PJ, emitting 1048 Tg of CO₂-C equivalent GHGs in 2005. If we continue to use the clone Miscanthus × giganteus , MISCANFOR shows that, as climate change reduces in-season water availability, energy production and carbon mitigation could fall 80% by 2080 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change A2 scenario. However, because Miscanthus is found in a huge range of climates in Asia, we propose that new hybrids will incorporate genes conferring superior drought and frost tolerance. Using parameters from characterized germplasm, we calculate energy production could increase from present levels by 88% (to 2360 PJ) and mitigate 42 Tg of CO₂-C equivalent using 10% arable land for the 2080 mid-range A2 scenario. This is equivalent to 3.6% of 2005 EU27 primary energy consumption and 4.0% of total CO₂ equivalent C GHG emissions.     

A Hybrid Approach for Assessing the Multi‐Scale Impacts of Urban Resource Use: Transportation in Phoenix,Arizona

Life cycle assessment (LCA) and urban metabolism (UM) are popular approaches for urban system environmental assessment. However, both approaches have challenges when used across spatial scales. LCA tends to decompose systemic information into micro‐level functional units that mask complexity and purpose, whereas UM typically equates aggregated material and energy flows with impacts and is not ideal for revealing the mechanisms or alternatives available to reduce systemic environmental risks. This study explores the value of integrating UM with LCA, using vehicle transportation in the Phoenix metropolitan area as an illustrative case study. Where other studies have focused on the use of LCA providing upstream supply‐chain impacts for UM, we assert that the broader value of the integrated approach is in (1) the ability to cross scales (from micro to macro) in environmental assessment and (2) establishing an analysis that captures function and complexity in urban systems. The results for Phoenix show the complexity in resource supply chains and critical infrastructure services, how impacts accrue well beyond geopolitical boundaries where activities occur, and potential system vulnerabilities.     

Nitrogen retention efficiency and nitrogen losses of a managed and phytodiverse temperate grassland

Maintaining nitrogen retention efficiency (NRE) is crucial in minimizing N losses when intensifying management of temperate grasslands. Our aim was to evaluate how grassland management practices and sward compositions affect NRE (1 − N losses/soil available N), defined as the efficiency with which soil available N is retained in an ecosystem. A three-factorial grassland management experiment was established with two fertilization treatments (without and combined N, phosphorus and potassium fertilization), two mowing frequencies (cut once and thrice per year) and three sward compositions (control, monocot- and dicot-enhanced swards). We measured N losses as leaching and nitrous oxide emissions, and soil available N as gross N mineralization rates. Fertilization increased N losses due to increased nitrification and decreased microbial N immobilization, and consequently decreased NRE. Intensive mowing partly dampened high N losses following fertilization. Sward compositions influenced NRE but not N losses: control swards that developed for decades under extensive management had the highest NRE, whereas monocot-enhanced sward had the lowest NRE. NRE was highly correlated with microbial NH₄⁺ immobilization and microbial biomass and only marginally correlated with plant N uptake, underlining the importance of microbial N retention in the soil-plant system. Microbial N retention is reflected in NRE but not in indices commonly used to reflect plant response. NRE was able to capture the effects of sward composition and fertilization whereas N losses were only sensitive to fertilization; thus, NRE is a better index when evaluating environmental sustainability of sward compositions and management practices of grasslands.     

Nutritional and ecological evaluation of dairy farming systems based on concentrate feeding regimes in semi-arid environments of Jordan

The objective of this study was to evaluate the nutritional and ecological aspects of feeding systems practiced under semi-arid environments in Jordan. Nine dairy farms representing the different dairy farming systems were selected for this study. Feed samples (n = 58), fecal samples (n = 108), and milk samples (n = 78) were collected from the farms and analysed for chemical composition. Feed samples were also analysed for metabolisable energy (ME) contents and in vitro organic matter digestibility according to Hohenheim-Feed-Test. Furthermore, fecal nitrogen concentration was determined to estimate in vivo organic matter digestibility. ME and nutrient intakes were calculated based on the farmer’s estimate of dry matter intake and the analysed composition of the feed ingredients. ME and nutrient intakes were compared to recommended standard values for adequate supply of ME, utilizable crude protein, rumen undegradable crude protein (RUCP), phosphorus (P), and calcium (Ca). Technology Impact Policy Impact Calculation model complemented with a partial life cycle assessment model was used to estimate greenhouse gas emissions of milk production at farm gate. The model predicts CH₄, N₂O and CO₂ gases emitted either directly or indirectly. Average daily energy corrected milk yield (ECM) was 19 kg and ranged between 11 and 27 kg. The mean of ME intake of all farms was 184 MJ/d with a range between 115 and 225 MJ/d. Intake of RUCP was lower than the standard requirements in six farms ranging between 19 and 137 g/d, was higher (32 and 93 g/d) in two farms, and matched the requirements in one farm. P intake was higher than the requirements in all farms (mean oversupply = 19 g/d) and ranged between 3 and 30 g/d. Ca intake was significantly below the requirements in small scale farms. Milk nitrogen efficiency N-_eff (milk N/intake N) varied between 19% and 28% and was mainly driven by the level of milk yield. Total CO₂ equivalent (CO₂ equ) emission ranged between 0.90 and 1.88 kg CO₂/kg ECM milk, where the enteric and manure CH₄ contributed to 52% of the total CO₂ equ emissions, followed by the indirect emissions of N₂O and the direct emissions of CO₂ gases which comprises 17% and 15%, respectively, from total CO₂ equ emissions. Emissions per kg of milk were significantly driven by the level of milk production (r² = 0.93) and of eDMI (r² = 0.88), while the total emissions were not influenced by diet composition. A difference of 16 kg ECM/d in milk yield, 9% in N-_eff and of 0.9 kg CO₂ equ/kg in ECM milk observed between low and high yielding animals. To improve the nutritional status of the animals, protein requirements have to be met. Furthermore, low price by-products with a low carbon credit should be included in the diets to replace the high proportion of imported concentrate feeds and consequently improve the economic situation of dairy farms and mitigate CO₂ equ emissions.     

Changes in floral bouquets from compound‐specific responses to increasing temperatures

We addressed the potential effects of changes in ambient temperature on the profiles of volatile emissions from flowers and tested whether warming could induce significant quantitative and qualitative changes in floral emissions, which would potentially interfere with plant–pollinator chemical communication. We measured the temperature responses of floral emissions of various common species of Mediterranean plants using dynamic headspace sampling and used GC‐MS to identify and quantify the emitted terpenes. Floral emissions increased with temperature to an optimum and thereafter decreased. The responses to temperature modeled here predicted increases in the rates of floral terpene emission of 0.03–1.4‐fold, depending on the species, in response to an increase of 1 °C in the mean global ambient temperature. Under the warmest projections that predict a maximum increase of 5 °C in the mean temperature of Mediterranean climates in the Northern Hemisphere by the end of the century, our models predicted increases in the rates of floral terpene emissions of 0.34–9.1‐fold, depending on the species. The species with the lowest emission rates had the highest relative increases in floral terpene emissions with temperature increases of 1–5 °C. The response of floral emissions to temperature differed among species and among different compounds within the species. Warming not only increased the rates of total emissions, but also changed the ratios among compounds that constituted the floral scents, i.e. increased the signal for pollinators, but also importantly altered the signal fidelity and probability of identification by pollinators, especially for specialists with a strong reliance on species‐specific floral blends.     

碳排放影响下中国省域旅游效率损失度研究

旅游效率损失度反映了碳排放对旅游效率的影响程度。采用超越对数生产函数测算2001—2014年中国30个省(区、市)的旅游效率及损失度,并运用面板回归模型分析效率损失的驱动力。结果表明:(1)碳排放对中国各省(区、市),尤其是中部省份的旅游效率造成了损失。研究期内,中国总体旅游效率损失度呈现上升趋势,东部地区年均增幅最大;(2)中国旅游效率与损失度总体上处于中等水平,但损失度年均增长率远高于旅游效率增长率,中部地区因为排放问题造成了较大的效率损失;(3)根据不同省域旅游效率及其损失度,可划分为"高效低损、高效高损、低效低损、低效高损"4种类型区;(4)基础设施、旅游接待能力、旅游吸引力、旅游产业规模、旅游产业结构、能源技术对不同类型区的影响存在差异,应根据外力驱动大小和作用方向调整旅游效率优化策略。     

京津冀地区污染物排放与城市化过程的耦合关系

我国快速的城市化发展不仅带来了经济的迅速发展和人口的大量聚集,同时也对资源和环境产生了巨大的影响。在城市化进程较为快速的城市群地区,城市化带来的生态环境胁迫尤为突出。以典型污染物为指标,定量研究了京津冀地区13个城市在2000年、2005年、2010年的工业和生活污染物的排放总量、人均排放量、排放效率、排放强度的时空特征,研究了经济发展与污染物排放的定量响应模式,以探讨污染物排放与城市化的耦合关系。研究发现:(1)京津冀地区的污染物排放空间分异特征显著,其中北京的生活污水、生活COD等污染物排放总量为地区内最高,唐山、天津、石家庄等城市的工业污染物排放高于其它城市。(2)北京、天津工业污染物的排放效率较高,人均排放量、排放强度低于其它城市。(3)2000—2010年间,京津冀地区的生活污水、工业废气、工业固废排放显著增加(P0.05),而其它生活和工业污染物排放量、排放效率和排放强度等呈显著下降趋势(P0.05)。(4)京津冀地区的工业废水、工业和生活SO2、生活烟尘、工业固废和工业废气等污染物的排放量与经济发展存在环境库兹涅兹曲线特征(R20.5,P0.05)。定量揭示了京津冀地区污染物排放的时空分布特征及其与城市化发展的关系,可为城市群区域污染物排放的管理及环境保护政策的制定提供科学参考。     

基于小尺度的高寒牧区碳排放估算——以甘南州合作市为例

碳排放是目前国内外研究的热点问题。纵观碳排放计算,关键涉及到两个环节:一是研究尺度的选择,二是评估参数(即碳排放/吸收系数)的确定。高寒牧区还必须充分考虑牲畜碳排放。以甘南州合作市为例,将研究尺度缩小到41个行政村,并采用最新的土地二调数据,对土地利用碳排放和碳汇、生活和牲畜碳排放进行了系统地测算。结果表明:(1)从土地利用的角度考察,合作市总碳排放表征为"碳亏"态势。总碳排放量为24374.82 t/a,其中土地利用碳排放量为4908.21 t/a,牲畜代谢碳排放量为3703.94 t/a,城乡居民生活碳排放量为15762.67 t/a。而碳汇量仅为1949.74 t/a,"碳亏"量为22425.08 t/a。(2)牲畜是高寒牧区呼吸碳排放的主体,其碳排量为3703.94t/a,其中牛是碳排放的主体,其碳排量占90%以上。(3)城乡居民生活碳排量为15762.67t/a,城镇明显高于农村,生存型碳排放强度高于发展型碳排放强度。(4)碳排放局分布势面与碳汇分布局势面基本呈反向分布态势,但总的碳排放格局取决于碳排放而非碳汇,空间分布表现为从城区—半农半牧区—纯牧区逐级递减的趋势。     

成都平原水稻-小麦轮作系统NO排放及其主要影响因素

应用静态暗箱-化学发光氮氧化物分析法对成都平原水稻-小麦轮作系统进行了1.5个轮作周期的NO排放定位观测,分析了NO排放特征及施氮、土壤温度、土壤湿度和作物参与对NO排放的影响。结果表明:成都平原水稻-小麦轮作系统在不施氮情况下,表现为土壤NO负排放(吸收),而施氮(N150kg/hm²)时NO排放通量为(5.5±3.3)μg m^-2 h^-1,施氮能显著增加土壤NO排放量,并且其效应在水热条件较好的水稻季更明显。整个观测期NO排放量有56.1%来自水稻季,而2个小麦季和休闲期NO排放量分别占32.5%和11.4%,由于休闲期NO高排放主要是作物收获后的几次翻地引起的,因此,减少休闲期翻地次数可能会有效减少NO排放。土壤温度是影响NO排放的首要环境因素,并且两者呈线性回归关系,土壤湿度对NO排放的影响因土壤湿度本身状况而异,土壤湿度条件较差时,其增加有利于NO排放,而当土壤湿度较好时会抑制NO排放。此外,土壤水热条件还是造成NO负排放(吸收)和作物参与对水稻季和小麦季NO排放贡献有别的重要原因。