Filtroporation: A simple, reliable technique for transfection and macromolecular loading of cells in suspension.

Cultured Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells suspended in their growth medium were forced by gas pressure through the uniformly sized micropores of filter membranes. This procedure caused transient damage to the plasma membrane, which increased the permeability of the cells to exogenous molecules. This "filtroporation" was indicated by uptake of fluorescent dextran molecules up to 500,000 MW in cells deemed viable by trypan blue dye exclusion. The macromolecular uptake was increased if the driving pressure was increased at constant micropore size, or if the micropore size was decreased at constant driving pressure. Larger membrane perturbations permitted uptake of a luciferase reporter plasmid, which resulted in transfection of the CHO cells with the surviving cells expressing luciferase activity after 2 days in culture. This simple and general new method of porating cells in suspension may be optimized to incorporate the desired macromolecules while retaining the maximum viability.     

N‐cadherin/catenin–based costameres in cultured chicken cardiomyocytes

N‐cadherin is a member of the Ca²⁺‐dependent cell adhesion molecules and plays an important role in the assembly of the adherens junction in chicken cardiomyocytes. In addition to being present at the cell‐cell junction, N‐cadherin is associated with costameres in extrajunctional regions. The significance of the N‐cadherin‐associated costameres and whether catenins are components of costameres in chicken cardiomyocytes are not known. In this study, double‐labeling immunofluorescence microscopy was used to determine the extrajunctional distribution of both N‐cadherin and its cytoplasmic associated proteins, α‐ and β‐catenins, and their relationship to myofibrillar Z‐disc α‐actinin. N‐cadherin, α‐, and β‐catenins were all found to be present at the extrajunctional region and, in some cases, were codistributed with myofibrillar α‐actinin exhibiting a periodic staining pattern. Confocal microscopy confirmed that both N‐cadherin and β‐catenin colocalized with peripheral myofibrillar α‐actinin on the dorsal surface of cardiomyocytes as components of the costameres. Intracellular application of antibodies specific for the cytoplasmic portions of N‐cadherin, α‐, and β‐catenin, either by electroporation or microinjection, resulted in myofibril disorganization and disassembly. These results suggest the existence of N‐cadherin/catenin‐based costameres in the dorsal surface of cultured chicken cardiomyocytes in addition to the integrin/vinculin‐based costameres found in the ventral surface and indicate that the former set of costameres is essential for cardiac myofibrillogenesis. J. Cell. Biochem. 75:93–104, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Measuring the Induced Membrane Voltage with Di-8-ANEPPS

Placement of a cell into an external electric field causes a local charge redistribution inside and outside of the cell in the vicinity of the cell membrane, resulting in a voltage across the membrane. This voltage, termed the induced membrane voltage (also induced transmembrane voltage, or induced transmembrane potential difference) and denoted by ΔΦ, exists only as long as the external field is present. If the resting voltage is present on the membrane, the induced voltage superimposes (adds) onto it. By using one of the potentiometric fluorescent dyes, such as di-8-ANEPPS, it is possible to observe the variations of ΔΦ on the cell membrane and to measure its value noninvasively. di-8-ANEPPS becomes strongly fluorescent when bound to the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane, with the change of the fluorescence intensity proportional to the change of ΔΦ. This video shows the protocol for measuring ΔΦ using di-8-ANEPPS and also demonstrates the influence of cell shape on the amplitude and spatial distribution of ΔΦ.     

Regulation of axon arborization pattern in the developing chick ciliary ganglion: Possible involvement of caspase 3

During a certain critical period in the development of the central and peripheral nervous systems, axonal branches and synapses are massively reorganized to form mature connections. In this process, neurons search their appropriate targets, expanding and/or retracting their axons. Recent work suggested that the caspase superfamily regulates the axon morphology. Here, we tested the hypothesis that caspase 3, which is one of the major executioners in apoptotic cell death, is involved in regulating the axon arborization. The embryonic chicken ciliary ganglion was used as a model system of synapse reorganization. A dominant negative mutant of caspase‐3 precursor (C3DN) was made and overexpressed in presynaptic neurons in the midbrain to interfere with the intrinsic caspase‐3 activity using an in ovo electroporation method. The axon arborization pattern was 3‐dimensionally and quantitatively analyzed in the ciliary ganglion. The overexpression of C3DN significantly reduced the number of branching points, the branch order and the complexity index, whereas it significantly elongated the terminal branches at E6. It also increased the internodal distance significantly at E8. But, these effects were negligible at E10 or later. During E6–8, there appeared to be a dynamic balance in the axon arborization pattern between the “targeting” mode, which is accompanied by elongation of terminal branches and the pruning of collateral branches, and the “pathfinding” mode, which is accompanied by the retraction of terminal branches and the sprouting of new collateral branches. The local and transient activation of caspase 3 could direct the balance towards the pathfinding mode.     

In vivo gene manipulations of epithelial cell sheets: a novel model to study epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition

Embryonic cells are classified into two types of cells by their morphology, epithelial and mesenchymal cells. During dynamic morphogenesis in development, epithelial cells often switch to mesenchymal by the process known as epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). EMT is a central issue in cancer metastasis where epithelial-derived tumor cells are converted to mesenchymal with high mobility. Although many molecules have been identified to be involved in the EMT mostly by in vitro studies, in vivo model systems have been limited. We here established a novel model with which EMT can be analyzed directly in the living body. By an electroporation technique, we targeted a portion of the lateral plate mesoderm that forms epithelial cell sheets delineating the kidney region, called nephric coelomic epithelium (Neph-CE). Enhanced green fluorescent protein-electroporated Neph-CE retained the epithelial integrity without invading into the underling stroma (mesonephros). The Neph-CE transgenesis further allowed us to explore EMT inducers in vivo, and to find that Ras-Raf and RhoA signals were potent inducers. Live-imaging confocal microscopy revealed that during EMT processes cells started extending cellular protrusions toward the stroma, followed by translocation of their cell bodies. Furthermore, we established a long-term tracing of EMT-induced cells, which were dynamically relocated within the kidney stroma. The Neph-CE-transgenesis will open a way to study cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying EMT directly in actual body.     

An electroporation protocol for efficient DNA transfection in PC12 cells

A wide variety of mammalian cell types is used in gene transfection studies. Establishing transfection methods that enable highly efficient DNA uptake has become increasingly important. PC12 is an established rat pheochromocytoma cell line, which responds to exposure to NGF with cessation of growth, expression of cytoplasmic processes, and differentiation into cells resembling sympathetic neurons. Although PC12 cells represent an important model system to study a variety of neuronal functions, they proved relatively difficult to transfect. We have compared the efficiency of three different chemical transfection reagents (Lipofectamine 2000, Lipofectamine LTX and TransIT-LT1) and of two electroporation systems (Neon and Gene Pulser Xcell) in transiently transfecting undifferentiated PC12 cells. By comparing efficiencies from replicate experiments we proved electroporation (in particular Neon) to be the method of choice. By optimizing different parameters (voltage, pulse width and number of pulses) we reached high efficiency of transfection (90 %) and viability (99 %). We also demonstrated that, upon electroporation, cells are not altered by the transfection and maintain their ability to differentiate.     

Low electric field parameters required to induce death of cancer cells

Irreversible electroporation (IRE) is a novel technique that deals with killing undesirable cells, mainly cancer cells, directly without using any cytotoxic drugs. Commonly in this technique very high electric field up to 1000?V/cm is used but for very short exposure time (nanoseconds). Low electric fields (LEFs) are used before to internalize molecules and drugs inside the cells (electroendocytosis) but mainly not in killing the cells. The aim of this work is to determine the ability of using LEFs to kill cancer cells (Hela cells). The Physics idea is in making LEFs energy equivalent to IRE energy. Four IRE protocols were selected to represent very high, high, moderate and mild voltages IRE, then we make equivalent energy for each of these protocols using different LEFs’ parameters of different amplitudes (7, 10, 14 and 20?V), different pulse numbers (40, 80, 160 and 320 pulses), different frequencies from 0.5 to 106.86?Hz and different pulse widths from 9.38 to 2000?ms. Each of the calculated LEF equivalent to IRE was applied on Hela cell line. The results show complete destruction of the cancer cells for all the tested exposure protocols. This damage was not due to thermal effect because the measured temperature was not changed before and after the exposure. The possible effect mechanism is discussed. It was concluded that the lethal effect on the cancer cells can be achieved using LEFs if the same energy equivalent to IRE is used. This work will help in using low-risk drug-free techniques in cancer treatment.     

高压电场不可逆电穿孔诱发A549肺癌细胞凋亡的实验研究

目的：不可逆电穿孔是治疗肿瘤的新兴技术,本文探讨高压电场引起的不可逆电穿孔诱发A549肺癌细胞凋亡的特点。方法：选择处于生长周期的A549细胞,共分为A—G7个组进行研究,其中A组为不施加电场的空白对照组,B-G组为实验组,B组施加500V／cm强度高压电场,G组施加1750V／cm的高压电场,BG组之间各组的高压电场强度间隔为250V／cm。采取细胞抑制实验、不可逆电穿孔示踪实验、细胞凋亡实验,检验A549细胞细胞凋亡与电场强度的关系。结果：①各实验组与对照组、各实验组之间的细胞抑制率,均存在显著性差异（P〈0．05）;②电场强度≥1000V／cm时,细胞不可逆电穿孔率明显增加,有统计学意义（P〈0．05）;电场强度≥1500V／cm时,细胞不可逆电穿孔率增加不明显,无统计学意义（P〉0．05）;③电场强度≥1250V／cm时,细胞早期凋亡率明显增加,有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论：高压电场不可逆电穿孔诱发A549肺癌细胞发生早期凋亡的强度为1250V／cm,发生晚期凋亡的强度为1500V／cm,且凋亡率随着电场强度的增加持续升高。这对于高压电场不可逆电穿孔效应引起的肿瘤细胞凋亡机制的研究具有重要意义。     

The Olfactory System as a Model to Study Axonal Growth Patterns and Morphology In Vivo

The olfactory system has the unusual capacity to generate new neurons throughout the lifetime of an organism. Olfactory stem cells in the basal portion of the olfactory epithelium continuously give rise to new sensory neurons that extend their axons into the olfactory bulb, where they face the challenge to integrate into existing circuitry. Because of this particular feature, the olfactory system represents a unique opportunity to monitor axonal wiring and guidance, and to investigate synapse formation. Here we describe a procedure for in vivo labeling of sensory neurons and subsequent visualization of axons in the olfactory system of larvae of the amphibian Xenopus laevis. To stain sensory neurons in the olfactory organ we adopt the electroporation technique. In vivo electroporation is an established technique for delivering fluorophore-coupled dextrans or other macromolecules into living cells. Stained sensory neurons and their axonal processes can then be monitored in the living animal either using confocal laser-scanning or multiphoton microscopy. By reducing the number of labeled cells to few or single cells per animal, single axons can be tracked into the olfactory bulb and their morphological changes can be monitored over weeks by conducting series of in vivo time lapse imaging experiments. While the described protocol exemplifies the labeling and monitoring of olfactory sensory neurons, it can also be adopted to other cell types within the olfactory and other systems.