Scanning Electron Microscopy of Xiphinema,Longidorus, and Californidorus Stylet Morphology

Stylet ultrastructure of five Xiphinema, four Longidorus, and three Californidorus species was compared by scanning electron microscopy. Morphological differences were seen in the odontophores and odontostyle bases between the genera and some of the species. All Xiphinema studied had well-developed odontophore flanges; the Longidorus species lacked flanges, except for weakly developed ones in L. diadecturus; and none of the Californidorus had flanges. Three sinuses were present in the odontophores of all species. The sinuses varied in length depending upon species. In Xiphinema and Californidorus the odontostyle bases had distinct overlapping collars, but in Longidorus the collars were absent except for L. diadecturus. The odontostyle-odontophore junction from a lateral view appeared as a slanted transverse line in all the species, but in a dorsal view of Xiphinema and Californidorus it was V-shaped. Dorsal longitudinal seams of the odontostyle and odontophore were observed in all the species. The dorsally located odontostyle aperture was ca. 1 μm from the anterior end in all species, except in one Longidorus sp. it was ca. 4 μm from the end.     

N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Activation and Ca2+ Account for Poor Pyramidal Cell Structure in Hippocampal Slices

The CA1 pyramidal cells appear damaged in micrographs of guinea pig hippocampal slices incubated in normal physiological buffer at 36–37°C. This is remedied if slices are incubated in modified buffers for the first 45 min. Cell morphology is improved if this buffer is devoid of added Ca²⁺ and much improved if it contains N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists or 0 mM Ca²⁺ and 10 mM Mg²⁺. The cells then appear similar to CA1 pyramidal cells in situ. These findings support the notion that NMDA receptor activation and Ca²⁺, acting in the period immediately after slice preparation, permanently damage CA1 pyramidal cells in vitro.     

The feeding ecology of three species of Caribbean angelfishes (family Pomacanthidae)

Synopsis The foraging behavior and associated morphology of the feeding apparatus of three sympatric species of angelfishes, Holacanthus tricolor, Pomacanthus arcuatus and Pomacanthus paru were studied at St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. All three had overlapping diets, consisting of algae and numerous species of sponges. The two Pomacanthus species also fed on gorgonians. The morphology of the dentition, jaws and gill rakers was similar in all three species. Male Holacanthus tricolor defended territories overlapping the foraging areas of two to four females. Within the male's territory, females defended smaller territories against other females of the same size, but tolerated smaller females. In contrast, both Pomacanthus spp. formed pairs which defended intraspecific feeding territories.     

The brain organization of butterflyfishes

Synopsis The encephalization indices of angelfishes (Pomacanthidae) and butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae) are typical of advanced perciform fishes: both families lie in the upper part of the polygon of teleost indices. The chaetodontids seem to be a little more encephalized than pomacanthids. The general morphology of the brains in both families is very similar: small olfactory bulbs, large optic tectum and a cerebellum which covers the brain structures in front of it like a cap. This morphology is shared by another family of the coral reef biotope, the Acanthuridae. The histological architecture is also typical of advanced teleosts, with a cortex-like pallium, a laminated nucleus geniculatus (= pretectalis superficialis), a complex valvula cerebelli and a corpus glomerulosum with a clear neuropile centre. The quantitative analysis of the main subdivisions of the brain, either from relative volumes or from indices, shows small olfactory bulbs (microsmy) but important telencephalic and diencephalic centres, large tectal centres (vision) and large cerebellum (precise locomotion). Many of these peculiarities are shared by other fishes inhabiting coral reefs. The differences between the two families seem to be primarily correlated with food habits: the angelfishes, which are sponge-feeders and may have an overweight due to the ballast of the sponge-skeleton in their digestive tract, and which do not need either such good vision or such precise locomotion to pick up their prey, could be a little less encephalized than the butterflyfishes.     

短尾猴（Macaca arctoides）和猕猴跟骨的功能形态研究

本文从形态描述和统计入手,对短尾猴(macaca arctoides)和猕猴的跟骨进行了比较研究。结果表明,所研究的跟骨变量无论数值大小还是几何图形结构都存在一定差异。特别是跟骨最大宽、跟长、后距骨连结面长、跟骨高度及相对跟长存在显著性差异水平。猕猴跟骨变量间的相关关系比短尾猴的表现得更为紧密。据其形态与功能的关系,我们认为:与猕猴相较,短尾猴更适应于地栖生活。这似乎与短尾猴具更大的体重有关。     

Ecological and evolutionary consequences of the trophic polymorphism in Cichlasoma citrinellum (Pisces: Cichlidae)

The neotropical cichlid fish Cichlasoma citrinellum is polymorphic in the structure of its pharyngeal jaw apparatus and external morphology. The pharyngeal jaws are either gracile and bear slender, pointed teeth (papilliform) or robust with strong, rounded teeth (molariform). Molariform morphs have a ‘benthic’, and papilliform morphs a ‘limnetic’ body form. Furthermore, this species is also polychromatic, with yellow and black morphs. The molariform morphology of the pharyngeal jaw apparatus adapts the fish for cracking and feeding on snails. Based on analysis of stomach contents, 94% of the molariform morph ate snails whereas only 19%, of the papilliform morph did so. This result suggests that the morphs occupy different ecological niches. The morphology of the pharyngeal jaw apparatus does not correlate significantly with sex, but it does with body colouration (P<0.005). Cichlasoma citrinellum mate assortatively with their own colour; therefore a mating preference for colour may lead to genetic isolation of trophic morphs. The frequency of the molariform morph differs strikingly among populations of five Nicaraguan lakes and its abundance is correlated with the abundance of snails, the fishes' principal prey item. Among populations the frequency of molariform morphs decreases in the dry season. Morphology possibly changes reversibly within particular individuals between seasons. These results suggest that phenotypic plasticity and polymorphisms may be an adaptive characteristic of cichlid fishes. Patterns of intraspecific morphological variation match patterns of interspecific morphological diversification which suggests that universal developmental mechanisms canalize the possible expressions of morphology. The ability to respond morphologically to environmental shifts, in conjunction with genetically determined trophic polymorphisms and sexual selection via mate choice, could be the basis for speciation through intermediate stages of polymorphism of the impressive adaptive radiation of cichlid fishes.     

Vocal morphology of the Physalaemus pustulosus species group (Leptodactylidae): morphological response to sexual selection for complex calls

Most male frogs in the genus Physalaemus produce a whine-like advertisement call. Male P. pustulosus , however, add chucks to the call. This enhances the attractiveness of the call to females, and has evolved under the influence of sexual selection despite the increased predation risk from the frog-eating bat ( Trachops cirrhosus ). This complex call is unusual, if not unique, among anurans because the two call components overlap in time. Here we investigate the morphological changes responsible for the production of complex calls.
The Physalaemus purtulosus species group consists of four species. Physalaemus pustulosus and P. petersi are sister species, and recently it has been shown that P. petersi produces chucks. Physalaemus coloradorum and P. purtulatus are sister species and neither is known to produce chucks. Two laryngeal characters vary within the species group. Physalaemus pustulosus has a large fibrous mass (FMI), whose vibration is responsible for production of the chuck. This mass is much smaller in the other three species. In P. pustulosus and P. petersi the FMI is anchored dorsally, deep within the bronchial process, the attachment is more extensive in P. pustulosus. Neither P. pustulatus nor P. coloradorum have such a dorsal attachment associated with their FMI. This character is responsible for allowing the FMI to vibrate independently of the vocal cords, that is, for the production of the complex call. Thus the morphological changes responsible for the evolution of this unusual behavioural innovation, the complex call, are gradual, and almost trival, in nature. This study also shows that the primitive condition of the larynx of the P. pustulosus and P. petersi ancestor, was predisposed to the production of complex calls.
We also document ontogenetic and sexually dimorphic patterns in larynx structure.     

Versatility and specialization in labrid fishes: ecomorphological implications

Summary The term specialized has been used to describe species that possess unique functional attributes and/or a narrow, stereotyped range of attributes, but there are few comparative functional analyses of specialists and generalists. If species with functional morphological specializations are capable of functioning over a broad range, the link between morphology and ecology may be relaxed under certain environmental conditions. In this study, high-speed films of jaw movements during prey capture were compared statistically for three coexisting coral reef fish species in the family Labridae, one trophic specialist and two trophic generalists. The trophic specialist possessed a unique functional feature related to the movement of the hyoid in the floor of the mouth, while the trophic generalists were not observed to possess any functional specializations. All three species showed functional versatility in that they were able to adjust their prey capture mechanism in response to the evasive potential of the prey. The functional versatility of trophic specialists has implications for ecomorphological studies, since species characterized as possessing unique functional or morphological features may demonstrate marked flexibility in ecological variables such as diet or foraging behavior, decreasing the likelihood of identifying correlations between morphology and ecology.     

Evolution of the power ("squeeze") grip and its morphological correlates in hominids.

The "squeeze" form of power grip is investigated for the purposes of clarifying the hand posture and activities associated with the grip, assessing the potential in chimpanzees for using the grip, and identifying morphological correlates of an effective power grip that may be recognized in fossil hominid species. Our approaches include: (1) the analysis of the human grip, focusing on both the hand posture involved and hand movements associated with use of the grip in hammering; (2) the analysis of similar chimpanzee grips and associated movements; (3) comparative functional analysis of regions in the hand exploited and stressed by the grip and its associated movements in humans; and (4) a review of the literature on the power grip and its morphological correlates. Results of the study indicate that humans use a squeeze form of power grip effectively to wield cylindrical tools forcefully as extensions of the forearm. Several morphological features occur in high frequency among humans which facilitate the grip and are consistent with the large internal and external forces associated with it in hammering and in other tool-using activities. Chimpanzee hand postures resembling this form of human power grip are not fully comparable and lack some of these morphological correlates that facilitate its use. The hand of Australopithecus afarensis does not appear to have been stressed by use of the grip, but there is some evidence for this type of stress in the metacarpals from Sterkfontein Member 4. Hands from Olduvai and Swartkrans do not provide sufficient evidence for assessment of power grip capabilities.