On the coevolution of social responsiveness and behavioural consistency

Recent research focuses on animal personalities, that is individual differences in behaviour that are consistent across contexts and over time. From an adaptive perspective, such limited behavioural plasticity is surprising, since a more flexible structure of behaviour should provide a selective advantage. Here, we argue that consistency can be advantageous because it makes individuals predictable. Predictability, however, can only be advantageous if at least some individuals in the population respond to individual differences. Consequently, the evolution of consistency and responsiveness are mutually dependent. We present a general analysis of this coevolutionary feedback for scenarios that can be represented as matrix games with two pure strategies (e.g. hawk-dove game, snowdrift game). We first show that responsive strategies are favoured whenever some individual differences are present in the population (e.g. due to mutation and drift). We then show that the presence of responsive individuals can trigger a coevolutionary process between responsiveness and consistency that gives rise to populations in which responsive individuals coexist with unresponsive individuals who show high levels of adaptive consistency in their behaviour. Next to providing an adaptive explanation for consistency, our results also link two key features associated with personalities, individual differences in responsiveness and behavioural consistency.     

An Olfactory Stimulus Modifies Nighttime Sleep in Young Men and Women

Aromatherapy is an anecdotal method for modifying sleep and mood. However, whether olfactory exposure to essential oils affects night‐time objective sleep remains untested. Previous studies also demonstrate superior olfactory abilities in women. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of an olfactory stimulus on subsequent sleep and assessed gender differences in such effects. Thirty‐one young healthy sleepers (16 men and 15 women, aged 18 to 30 yr, mean±SD, 20.5±2.4 yr) completed 3 consecutive overnight sessions in a sleep laboratory: one adaptation, one stimulus, and one control night (the latter 2 nights in counterbalanced order). Subjects received an intermittent presentation (first 2 min of each 10 min interval) of an olfactory (lavender oil) or a control (distilled water) stimulus between 23:10 and 23:40 h. Standard polysomnographic sleep and self‐rated sleepiness and mood data were collected. Lavender increased the percentage of deep or slow‐wave sleep (SWS) in men and women. All subjects reported higher vigor the morning after lavender exposure, corroborating the restorative SWS increase. Lavender also increased stage 2 (light) sleep, and decreased rapid‐eye movement (REM) sleep and the amount of time to reach wake after first falling asleep (wake after sleep onset latency) in women, with opposite effects in men. Thus, lavender serves as a mild sedative and has practical applications as a novel, nonphotic method for promoting deep sleep in young men and women and for producing gender‐dependent sleep effects.     

Styles of male social behavior and their endocrine correlates among low-ranking baboons

We have previously studied the relationship between social subordinance (by approach-avoidance criteria) and physiology among male olive baboons (Papio anubis) living freely in a national park in Africa. In stable hierarchies, subordinate individuals have elevated basal glucocorticoid concentrations and a blunted glucocorticoid response to stress, as well as a prompt suppression of testosterone concentrations during stress. These facets have been interpreted as reflecting the chronic stress of social subordinance. In the present report, we find that these endocrine features do not mark all subordinate individuals. Instead, endocrine profiles differed among subordinate males as a function of particular stylistic traits of social behavior. A subset of subordinate males was identified who had significantly high rates of consortships, a behavior usually shown only by high-ranking males. Such behavior predicted the beginning transition to dominance, as these males were significantly more likely than other subordinates to have moved to the dominant half of the hierarchy over the subsequent 3 years. In keeping with this theme of emerging from subordinance, these individuals also had significantly larger glucocorticoid stress-responses, another feature typical of dominant males. However, these subordinate males also had significantly elevated basal glucocorticoid concentrations; it is suggested that this reflects that stressfulness of their overt and precocious strategy of reproductive competition. In support of this, subordinate males with high rates of covert “stolen copulations” did not show elevated basal glucocorticoid concentrations. A second subset of subordinate males were the most likely to initiate fights or to displace aggression onto a third party after losing a fight. These males had significantly or near-significantly elevated testosterone concentrations, compared to the remaining subordinate cohort. Moreover, these males had significantly lower basal glucocorticoid concentrations; this echoes an extensive literature showing that the availability of a displacement behavior (whether aggressive or otherwise) after a stressor decreases glucocorticoid secretion. In support of this interpretation suggesting that it was the initiation of these aggressive acts which attenuated glucocorticoid secretion, there was no association between glucocorticoid concentrations and participation (independent of initiation) in aggressive interactions. Thus, these findings suggest that variables other than rank alone may be associated with distinctive endocrine profiles, and that even in the face of a social stressor (such as subordinance), particular behavioral styles may attenuate the endocrine indices of stress. Am. J. Primatol. 42:25–39, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The circadian Clock mutation increases exploratory activity and escape-seeking behavior

Disturbances of circadian rhythms are associated with many types of mood disorders; however, it is unknown whether a dysfunctional circadian pacemaker can be the primary cause of altered emotional behavior. To test this hypothesis, male and female mice carrying a mutation of the circadian gene, Clock, were compared to wild-type mice in an array of behavioral tests used to measure exploratory activity, anxiety, and behavioral despair. Female Clock mutant mice exhibited significantly greater activity and rearing in an open field and a greater number of total arm entries in the elevated plus maze. In addition, female Clock mutant mice spent significantly more time swimming in the forced swim test than wild-type mice on both days of a 2-day test. Male Clock mutant mice also exhibited increased exploration of the open field and increased swimming in the forced swim test; however, behavioral changes were less robust in Clock mutant males compared to Clock mutant females. These changes in behavior were not dependent on the expression of a lengthened free-running period but were more or less striking depending on the testing conditions. These data indicate that the Clock mutation leads to increased exploratory behavior and increased escape-seeking behavior, and, conversely, does not result in increased anxiety or depressive-like behavior. These results suggest that the Clock gene is involved in regulating behavioral arousal, and that Clock may interact with sex hormones to produce these behavioral changes.     

Characterization of photosynthetic pathway of plant species growing in the eastern Tibetan plateau using stable carbon isotope composition

The photosynthetic pathway of plant species collected at Menyuan, Henan, and Maduo sites, east of Tibetan Plateau, China, during the growing season were studied using stable carbon isotopes in leaves. The 232 samples leaves analyzed belonged to 161 species, 30 families, and 94 genera. The δ¹³C values (from −24.6 to − 29.2 ‰) indicated that all the considered species had a photosynthetic C₃ pathway. The absence of plant species with C₄ photosynthetic pathway might be due to the extremely low air temperature characterizing the Tibetan Plateau. The average δ¹³C value was significantly (p<0.05) different between annuals and perennials at the three considered study sites. Hence the longer-lived species had greater water-use efficiency (WUE) than shorter-lived species, that is, longer-lived species are better adapted to the extreme environmental conditions of the Tibetan Plateau.     

In vitro reactivation of sarin-inhibited brain acetylcholinesterase from different species by various oximes

In vitro as well as in vivo evaluation of the reactivating efficacy of various oximes against nerve agent-inhibited acetylcholinesterase has been usually done with the help of animal experiments. Nevertheless, previously published data indicate that the reactivation potency of oximes may be different in human and animal species, which may hamper the extrapolation of animal data to human data. Therefore, to better evaluate the efficacy of various oximes (pralidoxime, obidoxime, HI-6, K033) to reactivate brain acetylcholinesterase inhibited by sarin by in vitro methods, human, rat and pig brain acetylcholinesterase were used to calculate kinetic parameters for the reactivation. Our results show differences among the species, depending on the type of oxime, and indicate that data from animal experiments needs to be carefully evaluated before extrapolation to humans.     

Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) social development: Sex differences in Juvenile behavior

We have quantitatively documented the development of sex differences in the behavior of juvenile Japanese macaques (1 to 2 years of age). Mothers treated their offspring differently by sex, i.e., mothers of males broke contact with them more frequently than did mothers of females. Juvenile males played more, and mounted other macaques more frequently; juvenile females groomed their mothers more and were also punished by other group members more frequently than were males. Males showed a pattern of decreasing interactions with their mothers, but females increased the frequency of their maternal interactions. These patterns appear to presage the life histories of the sexes. However, comparisons with other species of nonhuman primates indicate that although sex differences in behavior are common, the variability among species severely limits cross-specific generalizations.     

Comparison between the complete mtDNA sequences of the blue and the fin whale,two species that can hybridize in nature

The sequence of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) molecule of the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) was determined. The molecule is 16,402 by long and its organization conforms with that of other eutherian mammals. The molecule was compared with the mtDNA of the congeneric fin whale (B. physalus). It was recently documented that the two species can hybridize and that male offspring are infertile whereas female offspring may be fertile. The present comparison made it possible to determine the degree of mtDNA difference that occurs between two species that are not completely separated by hybridization incompatibility. The difference between the complete mtDNA sequences was 7.4%. Lengths of peptide coding genes were the same in both species. Except for a small portion of the control region, disruption in alignment was usually limited to insertion/deletion of a single nucleotide. Nucleotide differences between peptide coding genes ranged from 7.1 to 10.5%, and difference at the inferred amino acid level was 0.0–7.9%. In the rRNA genes the mean transition difference was 3.8%. This figure is similar in degree to the difference (3.4%) between the 12S rRNA gene of humans and the chimpanzee. The mtDNA differences between the two whale species, involving both peptide coding and rRNA genes, suggest an evolutionary separation of 5 million years. Although hybridization between more distantly related mammalian species may not be excluded, it is probable that the blue and fin whales are nearly as different in their mtDNA sequences as hybridizing mammal species may be. Correspondence to: Ú. Árnason     

55岁以下急性冠状动脉综合征的影响因素分析

目的:探究55岁以下急性冠状动脉综合征(Acute coronary syndrome,ACS)患者的影响因素。方法:选择2010年3月至2013年3月于我院就诊的180例55岁以下ACS患者为研究对象,按照其性别将其区分为男性组(101例)和女性组(79例)。收集和比较两组患者一般临床资料,血清血红蛋白(Hemoglobin,HGB)、甘油三酯(Triglyceride,TG)、胆固醇(Cholesterol,TC)、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇(Low density lipoprotein cholesterol,LDL-C)、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇(High density lipoprotein cholesterol,HDL-C)、血尿酸水平。对两组患者进行5年随访,对比两组患者心血管不良事件(Major adverse cardiovas-cular events,MACE)的发生率、死亡率及再发病率。结果:(1)女性组平均发病年龄高于男性组,女性组伴发高血压、糖尿病、脑卒中比率高于男性组,男性组吸烟史比率高于女性组(P<0.05),两组BMI、心血管病家族史对比差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);(2)女性组TC、TG、LDL-C、HDL-C水平均高于男性组(P<0.05),女性组血尿酸水平低于男性组(P<0.05);(3)对比5年预后,男性组MACE发生率为9.90%(10/101),女性组MACE发生率为11.39%(9/79),男性组死亡率为1.98%(2/101),女性组为1.27%(1/79),再发病率男性组为5.94%(6/101),女性组为6.33%(5/79),两组上述指标对比差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论:女性ACS患者发病年龄高于男性患者,糖尿病、高血压等病对女性患者影响更为明显,而吸烟则对男性影响更大,女性ACS患者血脂、血尿酸等指标异常程度甚于男性患者,但女性与男性患者远期预后相当。