Evaluation of the enteric microflora of captive whooping cranes (Grus americana) and sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis)

The enteric flora of captive whooping cranes (Grus americana) and sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis) has not been well described, despite its potential importance in the understanding of both the normal condition of the intestinal physiology of these animals and the altered colonization within disease states in these birds. Nineteen whooping cranes and 23 sandhill cranes housed currently at the Calgary Zoo or its affiliated Devonian Wildlife Conservation Centre (DWCC) in Calgary, Alberta were sampled from October 2004–February 2005 by collecting aerobic and anaerobic cloacal swabs from each bird. There were seven major groupings of bacteria isolated from both species of crane. Gram‐positive cocci, coliforms, and gram‐negative bacilli were the most prevalent types of bacteria isolated for both crane species, with Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, and Streptococcus Group D, not Enterococcus the bacterial species isolated most commonly. There was a significant difference in the average number of isolates per individual between the two crane species but no differences between age or gender categories within crane species. Campylobacter sp. were isolated from five whooping cranes. The potential zoonotic pathogen Campylobacter jejuni was isolated from one whooping crane and C. upsaliensis was isolated from a second. Three other isolates were unspeciated members of the Campylobacter genus and likely belong to a species undescribed previously. The evaluation of the enteric cloacal flora of whooping cranes and sandhill cranes illustrates that differences exist between these two closely related crane species, and highlights the potential implications these differences may have for current practices involving captive wildlife. Zoo Biol 0:1–13, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Restoration of reproductive potential after expiration or removal of melengestrol acetate contraceptive implants in Tigers (Panthera tigris)

The need for contraception in the successful management of captive wild animals is becoming increasingly apparent. Because concerns exist regarding the reversibility of the contraceptive implant melengestrol acetate (MGA), reproductive data for 94 female Amur (Panthera tigris altaica) and Sumatran tigers (Panthera tigris sumatrae) were analyzed using survival analyses to evaluate return to reproductive status after implant removal or assumed expiration. Females placed in potential breeding situations after MGA implants were surgically removed showed a 62% return to reproduction by 5.25 years, whereas females with implants that were assumed to have expired showed only a 30% return to reproduction by 6 years. Implanted females did not reproduce as successfully as non‐implanted control females, which showed an 85% probability of reproducing after placement in a new breeding situation by 2.66 years. Parturition increased the probability of reproducing in non‐implanted females, but not in implanted females. Litter size, stillbirths, and offspring survival were not significantly different between non‐implanted, implant‐removed and implant‐expired female tigers. Ten female tigers reproduced both before and after implant placement, and the differences in litter size, stillbirths, and offspring survival were not significant, nor were they significantly different from non‐implanted females. Prior parturition, age when implant was removed, and duration of implantation did not affect the probability of reproducing for females after implant removal. These results show substantial reversibility of MGA implants, leading to 62% successful reproduction after implant removal. The reasons for lower successful reproduction in animals previously treated with the contraceptive compared to non‐implanted females are not known, but a greater delay in reversibility was seen when implants were left in place and only presumed expired. Zoo Biol 26:275–288, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Captive breeding of pangolins: current status,problems and future prospects

Pangolins are unique placental mammals with eight species existing in the world, which have adapted to a highly specialized diet of ants and termites, and are of significance in the control of forest termite disaster. Besides their ecological value, pangolins are extremely important economic animals with the value as medicine and food. At present, illegal hunting and habitat destruction have drastically decreased the wild population of pangolins, pushing them to the edge of extinction. Captive breeding is an important way to protect these species, but because of pangolin’s specialized behaviors and high dependence on natural ecosystem, there still exist many technical barriers to successful captive breeding programs. In this paper, based on the literatures and our practical experience, we reviewed the status and existing problems in captive breeding of pangolins, including four aspects, the naturalistic habitat, dietary husbandry, reproduction and disease control. Some recommendations are presented for effective captive breeding and protection of pangolins.     

Comparison of the community structures of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria and archaea in rhizoplanes of floating aquatic macrophytes

Some common floating aquatic macrophytes could remove nutrients, such as nitrogen, from eutrophic water. However, the relationship between these macrophytes and the ammonia-oxidizing microorganisms on their rhizoplanes is still unknown. In this study, we examined communities of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and bacteria (AOB) on the rhizoplanes of common floating aquatic macrophytes (Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes and Ipomoea aquatic) in a eutrophic reservoir.The results show that AOB were the predominant ammonia-oxidizer on the three rhizoplanes. The principal AOB were Nitrosomonas europaea and Nitrosomonas ureae clades. The principal group of AOA was most similar to the clone from activated sludge. The ratio of AOB amoA gene copies to AOA varied from 1.36 (on E. crassipes) to 41.90 (on P. stratiotes). Diversity of AOA was much lower than that of AOB in most samples, with the exception of P. stratiotes.     

Identification and siting of native vegetation types on disturbed land: demonstration of statistical methods

Question: How does one best choose native vegetation types and site them in reclamation of disturbed sites ranging from cropland and strip mines? Application: World‐wide, demonstrated in SE Montana. Methods: We assumed that pre‐disturbance native communities are the best targets for revegetation, and that the environmental facet each occupies naturally provides its optimal habitat. Given this assumption, we used pre‐strip‐mine data (800 points from a 88 km² site) to demonstrate statistical methods for identifying native communities, describing them, and determining their environments. Results and conclusions: Classification and pruning analysis provided an objective method for choosing the number of target community types to be used in reclamation. The composition of eight target types, identified with these analyses, was described with a relevé table to provide a species list, target cover levels and support the choice of species to be seeded. As a basis for siting communities, we modeled community presence as a function of topography, slope/aspect, and substrate. Logistic GLMs identified the optimal environment for each community. Classification and Regression Tree (CART) analysis identified the most probable community in each environmental facet. Topography and slope were generally the best predictors in these models. Because our analyses relate native vegetation to undisturbed environments, our results may apply best to sites with minimal substrate disturbance (i.e. better to abandoned cropland than to strip‐mined sites).     

Historical biogeography and distribution of the freshwater calanoid copepods (Crustacea: Copepoda) of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico

Aim To determine and analyse the distribution of the freshwater calanoid copepod (Diaptomidae and Pseudodiaptomidae) fauna of the Yucatan Peninsula (YP) and its relation to the geological history of this Neotropical karstic plain. Location The Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Methods Plotting of geo‐referenced sites, analysis of local and regional geological history, analysis and comparison of regional and local records. Results The current composition and distribution of Diaptomidae and Pseudodiaptomidae in the YP mainly reflects recent, post‐Pliocene colonization events. This invasion did not reach America, but only parts of Central America (CA). The presence of diaptomids in the continent since the pre‐Cretaceous and the presumed post‐Cretaceous (Palaeocene–Oligocene) radiation of Diaptomidae in Middle America suggest earlier colonizations of the YP. The marine transgressions kept most of the YP submerged in different geological periods, thus eliminating any original primary freshwater colonizers, such as the diaptomids. The periods of marine regression probably represented opportunities for new waves of diaptomid colonization of the YP. The latest dispersal of diaptomids in the YP during the Holocene (8000 yr bp ) was probably an intermittent process because of the alternative dry and wet periods and interglacial transgressions. The presence of the Nearctic Leptodiaptomus and Arctodiaptomus in the YP and the current distribution of Mastigodiaptomus might represent remnants of earlier invasions of Diaptomidae in Middle America. The Neotropical Mastigodiaptomus probably originated in the Late Cretacic CA/proto‐Antilles complex. Forms derived from a M. albuquerquensis type ancestor radiated into the YP leaving relatively isolated populations of three species in the northern half of the peninsula. The distribution of the brackish water Pseudodiaptomus marshi well inside the coastline might have resulted from stranding and subsequent adaptation of this species during a marine regression in the Bacalar formation; this agrees with the vision of this taxon as being in process of invasion of freshwater environments. Main conclusions It is not probable that the South American (SA) diaptomid fauna originated from an invasion of upper Neotropical/Nearctic forms. The current distribution of freshwater calanoid copepods reflects relatively recent, post‐Pliocene biogeographical patterns, but probably older patterns are involved as well. The northern and eastern coasts of the Yucatan are the most recently colonized by diaptomids. Differing from other freshwater groups surveyed in the Yucatan that have marine relatives (i.e. fishes, amphipods, isopods, mysids, macrocrustaceans), there is no evidence of local vicariant events involving cave‐dwelling forms or marine relicts in the diaptomid fauna of the YP.     

Down under the southeastern Pacific: marine non-indigenous species in Chile

This article presents the first compilation of marine non-indigenous species (NIS) of algae and macro-invertebrates invading Chilean waters. A total of 32 cosmopolitan and non-cosmopolitan species are reported. Among them there are six species considered as extending their southern range of distribution in connection with El Niño events. The article highlights negative and positive impacts caused by marine NIS invasions. Among the first are Codium fragile var. tomentosoide, considered as a pest in Gracilaria chilensis aquaculture facilities in northern Chile, and Ciona intestinalis, a pest in scallop aquaculture installations. Among the second are bio-engineers species, such as the ascidian Pyura praeputialis and the sea grass Heterozostera tasmanica, which have caused an increase in local biodiversity and enhancement of nursery grounds via the creation of new habitats. Further more, invaders such as the algae Mastocarpus papillosus, Porphyra linearis and P. pseudolinearis represent new exploitable resources, extracted by coastal food gatherers along the coast (M. papillosus) or potential species to develop aquaculture. Additional information is presented on the anemone Anemonia alicemartinae, which appears to be a native species (?), having shown in the past 40–50 years, a geographical southward range extension of approximately 1900 km. The number of NIS reported for Chile is compared with those published for the southwestern Atlantic, South Africa, North America (Atlantic and Pacific coasts) and New Zealand. It is suggested that probably the low number of Chilean NIS is due to the fact that the Chilean coasts are environmentally less stressed than other coasts in the world, due to the scarcity of estuaries, gulfs, enclosed bays, lagoons and low human populations. These kinds of sheltered areas have been suggested as centers for bio-invasions, due to the high rate of human-mediated transfer and increase of pollutants. Furthermore, none of NIS reported from Chile show a fast geographical expansion rate (exception of A. alicemartinae), nor invading strategies such as those described for marine NIS in other latitudes, where notorious ecological unbalances following invasions have been observed. An alternative hypothesis is that the low number of marine NIS invading Chile is underestimated, since the modern list of species generated through specific taxonomically intensive port and harbor surveys is still lacking. Fifteen species (five invertebrate and 10 fish) have been deliberately imported to Chile for aquaculture. The invertebrates appear to be controlled within aquaculture facilities and have not established naturalized populations or caused direct ecological impacts on local communities. On the contrary, several millions of salmoniforms (and rainbow trout) have escaped from farming facilities in southern Chile and established naturalized populations. Studies on ecological impacts are lacking. These escapees are also playing a role in the enhancement of artisanal and sport fishery activities.     

Quantifying Structural and Functional Restraints on Amino Acid Substitutions in Evolution of Proteins

One of Oleg Ptitsyn's most important papers (Shakhnovich, E., Abkevich, V., and Ptitsyn, O. (1996) Nature, 379, 96-98) describes how knowledge of structure and function can be used to understand better the nature of amino acid substitutions in families and superfamilies of proteins. The selective advantages of retaining structure and function during evolution can be expressed as restraints on the amino acid substitutions that are accepted.     

Ontogenetic correlates of diet in Malagasy lemurs

There is a well-documented relationship between development and other life-history parameters among anthropoid primates. Smaller-bodied anthropoids tend to mature more rapidly than do larger-bodied species. Among anthropoids of similar body sizes, folivorous species tend to grow and mature more quickly than do frugivorous species, thus attaining adult body size at an earlier age. This pattern conforms to the expectations of Janson and van Schaik's "ecological risk aversion hypothesis," which predicts that rates of growth and maturation should vary in inverse relation to the intensity of intraspecific feeding competition. According to the ecological risk aversion hypothesis (RAH), species experiencing high intraspecific feeding competition will grow and mature slowly to reduce the risk of mortality due to food shortages. Species experiencing low levels of intraspecific feeding competition will shorten the juvenile period to reduce the overall duration of this high-risk portion of the life cycle. This paper focuses on development and maturation in lemurs. We show that folivorous lemurs (such as indriids) grow and mature more slowly than like-sized frugivorous lemurs (e.g., most lemurids), but tend to exhibit faster dental development. Their dental developmental schedules are accelerated on an absolute scale, relative to craniofacial growth, and relative to particular life-history landmarks, such as weaning. Dental development has a strong phylogenetic component: even those lemurids that consume substantial amounts of foliage have slower dental development than those indriids that consume substantial amounts of fruit. Implications of these results for the RAH are discussed, and an explanation for this hypothesis' failure to predict lemur growth schedules is offered. We propose that the differing developmental schedules of folivorous and frugivorous lemurs may reflect different solutions to the ecological problem of environmental instability: some rely on a strategy of low maternal input and slow returns, while others rely on a strategy of high maternal input and fast returns.     

Airborne fungal spores in urban and rural environments in Poland

The concentrations of airborne fungal spores were measured during 2001–2002 in two sites in Poland—one in the city and the other in the countryside. The sites differed in habitat characteristics, such as urbanisation level, vegetation and microclimate. The aim of the study was to determine if, and in which way, land use type would affect spore occurrence. The volumetric method was used, and ten easily identifiable spore types were sampled and anyalysed: Alternaria, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Epiccocum, Ganoderma, Pithomyces, Polythrincium, Stemphylium, Torula and Drechslera. The season of spore occurrence was determined using the 90% method. The fungal spores studied were very frequent in the air (in most instances at a frequency higher than 50%). The most common spores were those of Cladosporium, with a frequency range of 83.1–90.5%. In both years the proportion of Cladosporium spores was statistically significantly higher in the city. In both 2001 and 2002 the total seasonal sum of all the spores was higher in the countryside than in the city as was the Seasonal Fungal Index (SFI) values and average concentrations of Botrytis, Ganoderma and Torula. These latter three genera are usually represented as pathogens of plants. The mean spore concentrations of most taxa were significantly higher in the rural environment. Correlation coefficients between daily concentrations at both sites for most of the taxa studied were significant, but with lower correlation values between variables. Such results indicate that the values from the sites are weakly interdependent. The study confirms that land use type may very likely have an impact on the course of spore occurrence, the mean daily concentrations of spores as well as SFI values.