Non‐symbiotic nitrogen fixation during leaf litter decomposition in an old‐growth temperate rain forest of Chiloé Island,southern Chile: Effects of single versus mixed species litter

Heterotrophic nitrogen fixation is a key ecosystem process in unpolluted, temperate old‐growth forests of southern South America as a source of new nitrogen to ecosystems. Decomposing leaf litter is an energy‐rich substrate that favours the occurrence of this energy demanding process. Following the niche ‘complementarity hypothesis’, we expected that decomposing leaf litter of a single tree species would support lower rates of non‐symbiotic N fixation than mixed species litter taken from the forest floor. To test this hypothesis we measured acetylene reduction activity in the decomposing monospecific litter of three evergreen tree species (litter C/N ratios, 50–79) in an old‐growth rain forest of Chiloé Island, southern Chile. Results showed a significant effect of species and month (anova , Tukey's test, P < 0.05) on decomposition and acetylene reduction rates (ARR), and a species effect on C/N ratios and initial % N of decomposing leaf litter. The lowest litter quality was that of Nothofagus nitida (C/N ratio = 78.7, lignin % = 59.27 ± 4.09), which resulted in higher rates of acetylene reduction activity (mean = 34.09 ± SE = 10.34 nmol h^?1 g^?1) and a higher decomposition rate (k = 0.47) than Podocarpus nubigena (C/N = 54.4, lignin % = 40.31 ± 6.86, Mean ARR = 4.11 ± 0.71 nmol h^?1 g^?1, k = 0.29), and Drimys winteri (C/N = 50.6, lignin % = 45.49 ± 6.28, ARR = 10.2 ± 4.01 nmol h^?1 g^?1, k = 0.29), and mixed species litter (C/N = 60.7, ARR = 8.89 ± 2.13 nmol h^?1g^?1). We interpret these results as follows: in N‐poor litter and high lignin content of leaves (e.g. N. nitida) free‐living N fixers would be at competitive advantage over non‐fixers, thereby becoming more active. Lower ARR in mixed litter can be a consequence of a lower litter C/N ratio compared with single species litter. We also found a strong coupling between in situ acetylene reduction and net N mineralization in surface soils, suggesting that as soon N is fixed by diazotroph bacteria it may be immediately incorporated into mineral soil by N mineralizers, thus reducing N immobilization.     

Microbiotic Crusts and Ecosystem Processes

Microbiotic crusts are biological soil crusts composed of lichens, cyanobacteria, algae, mosses, and fungi. The biodiversity of these crusts is poorly understood; several cosmopolitan species dominate in most areas, but many species are confined to one or a few sites. Nitrogen fixation by organisms within the crust can be the dominant source of nitrogen input into many ecosystems, although rates of nitrogen input are limited by water availability, temperature, and nitrogen loss from the crust. Photosynthetic rates of the microbiotic crust can be 50% of those observed for higher plants, but the contribution of crusts to carbon cycling is not known. The microbiotic crust binds soil particles together, and this significantly increases soil surface stability and resistance to erosion. Greenhouse studies have found that crusts can enhance seed germination, seedling survivorship, and plant nutrient status, but further experiments are needed under field conditions. Crusts are extremely susceptible to surface disturbance and fire, and disruption of crusts can decrease soil fertility and stability resulting in lower nutrient availability for vascular plants and significant soil loss from the ecosystem.     

胶州湾大型底栖动物生物多样性现状

根据自1998年2月至2001年11月对胶州湾的10个站15个航次（每季度月一次）的大型底栖动物分布状况调查资料,报道了胶州湾大型底栖生物物种多样性现状,采用了香农-威纳指数、物种丰富度指数以及物种均匀度指数对胶州湾大型底栖生物的群落结构、种类组成、优势种以及数量动态趋势进行了分析。本次调查共采到底栖动物322种,其中多毛类44科133种,甲壳动物42科92种,棘皮动物仅有14种。各站获得平均种类数在8—26种之间,种类最少的出现在7号站,最多的出现在3号站。各站位香农-威纳指数也有很大差异,最大的是2001年11月的8号站,最小的则出现在2001年8月的9号站。7号站和9号站种类数、物种多样性指数及物种丰度指数均较低,这是因为它们位于水流较大的区域,且底质为粗砂。3号站虽然种类数较多,并具有较大的香农-威纳指数,但它的物种均匀度指数却非常低,这是因为3号站靠近菲律宾蛤仔养殖区域,蛤仔的高密度降低了均匀度指数。生物多样性除了受种的数量及其个体密度的影响外,还与多种环境因素有关,如水温,盐度、初级生产力等,人为因素（如污染、过度利用）对底栖生物影响非常大。目的在于为进一步研究胶州湾生物多样性变化及底栖生物资源的合理开发和持续利用提供科学依据和积累资料。     

Predatory Potential of Freshwater Animals on an Invasive Agricultural Pest, the Apple Snail Pomacea canaliculata (Gastropoda: Ampullariidae), in Southern Japan

The apple snail Pomacea canaliculata is an invasive species and a serious pest of rice in many Asian countries. We studied predatory activities of various animals living in Japanese freshwater habitats, by keeping each individual of a potential predator species with 36 snails of various sizes for three days in the aquarium. Forty-six species were tested, and 26 in eight classes fed on small snails. A species of leech, crabs, the common carp, turtles, the mallard duck and the Norway rat attacked even adult snails of 20–30 mm in shell height. These findings will be helpful in identifying effective predators for biological control of the pest snail. In addition, most of the animals attacking snails are reported to be common in rivers or ponds, but few live in modernized paddy fields having little connections with natural water systems. This may be a reason why this snail maintains large populations in paddy fields but not in other freshwater habitats.     

On the Relationships between Ground-dwelling Spider (Araneae) Assemblages and Dead Wood in a Northern Sugar Maple Forest

Downed woody material (fallen logs) offers ground-dwelling spiders (Araneae) ideal sites for nesting and foraging, but little is known about what characteristics of dead wood influence spider assemblages. In a maple forest of Forillon National Park, in eastern Québec (Canada), spider assemblages on, adjacent to, and away from fallen logs were compared. We also tested how log type (coniferous vs. deciduous) and decomposition stage influenced spider assemblages. Sampling was done for an intensive four-week period using both litter samples and pitfall traps. A total of 5613 spiders representing 83 species from 16 families was collected. Spiders were affected by the presence of logs, as both species diversity and total number of individuals collected were significantly higher on the log surface compared to the forest floor. Ordination analysis revealed a distinct compositional difference between the spider fauna found on the wood surface compared to the forest floor. Wood type and decomposition stage had few significant effects on spider assemblages, except that less decayed logs supported higher spider diversity than logs in advanced stages of decay. Dead wood is clearly important for generalist predators such as spiders, further supporting the conservation importance of fallen logs in northern forest ecosystems.     

峨眉山常绿落叶阔叶混交林的生物多样性及植物区系初探

对峨眉山常绿落叶阔叶混交林的群落结构﹑组成﹑生物多样性及植物区系等几方面进行了研究分析。结果显示峨眉山阔叶混交林由226种维管束植物组成,其中被子植物73科137属207种, 占总种数的91.6%,是峨眉山阔叶混交林的重要组成部分;群落分层现象明显,为乔木层﹑灌木层﹑草本层和层外植物4层,其中草本层发育情况差;科分布型是以热带—亚热带﹑热带—温带为主,各占22.7%, 在属的水平上则以温带分布占绝对优势(52.9%),揭示了峨眉山阔叶混交林的区系性质是以温带为主的亚热带类型;生物多样性指数处于较低的水平,在经过人为干扰后,群落处于稳定的恢复阶段。     

生态学中的点格局研究概况及其在国内的应用

点格局分析是研究生态学格局的工具之一,近年来在生态学中的应用越来越多。为深入了解点格局分析方法在国内的研究与应用情况,以所总结的研究进展、一般步骤和基本要点为背景,分析评述了1996—2015年期间以点格局为主题的国内中文核心期刊文献。结果表明,在国内生态学格局研究中,应用研究占据主导地位,研究对象广泛,包括以树木为主的乔、灌、草等不同生活型的植物,甚至包括景观;基础研究,包括概括性统计量、零模型与点过程模型等方面,以及专用软件工具包的开发等研究薄弱。在应用中存在一定问题,主要表现为:概括性统计量使用单一,且以Ripley的K-函数及其变形为主;零模型(或点过程模型)是科学问题的统计表达,但是有一半以上的研究未明确给出零模型。建议在未来应用研究中重视多种统计量的组合使用和原假设的建立,在探讨热带、亚热带森林等具有复杂空间结构系统的多样性格局时,考虑对象的不同世代和系统的不同垂直层次,并加强多变量或三维概括性统计量的开发、点格局分析方法与动态过程模型的结合研究等工作。     

Power and limitation of soil properties as predictors of variation in peak plant biomass in a northern mixed-grass prairie

Soil properties are thought to affect annual plant productivity in rangelands, and thus soil variables that are consistently correlated with plant biomass may be general indicators of rangeland health. Here we measured several soil properties (e.g. aggregate stability, organic carbon, total nitrogen) and tested each as a would-be predictor of local variation in peak aboveground grassland biomass. Individual properties explained a slight (≤10%) amount of variation in plant biomass. Plant biomass was mainly (negatively) associated with two soil properties, subsurface soil carbonate concentration and the stability of soil macroaggregates near the soil surface. Less important predictive variables included: elevation, plant community composition, surface soil organic carbon, and soil carbon:nitrogen. Plot-to-plot variation in plant biomass is seemingly difficult to predict based on soil properties, including popular indicators of soil and rangeland health and even root biomass. While protection of soil is critical to overall rangeland ecosystem function, our findings suggest that the relationship between soil properties and plant biomass in natural grasslands is complex. Thus, there may not be one or even several soil properties that consistently predict appreciable variation in peak grassland biomass, especially variation within an ecosystem independent of precipitation.     

天目山常绿落叶阔叶林群落垂直结构与群落整体物种多样性的关系

以浙江省天目山1 hm²常绿落叶阔叶混交林样地调查数据为基础,运用K-means聚类方法将DBH≥1 cm的个体根据树高划分为不同林层,研究比较了各个林层的物种多样性特点;利用通径分析方法和决策系数定量计算各个林层物种多样性对群落整体物种多样性的直接作用和间接作用,天目山常绿落叶阔叶林垂直结构对群落物种多样性构成的影响。结果表明：（1）天目山常绿落叶阔叶林群落层次结构丰富,树高由1.4-36.5 m依次可分为灌木层、亚冠层、林冠下层、林冠中层和林冠上层。（2）天目山常绿落叶阔叶林群落从灌木层依次往向上,物种丰富度、多度、特有种数量、Shannon-Weiner指数和Simpson指数均呈下降趋势。（3）灌木层对群落物种多样性的贡献最大且远高于其他四个林层,其中灌木层对群落整体物种多样性Shannon-Wiener指数、Pielou指数以及Simpson指数的决策系数分别为0.850、0.651、0.755。（4）林冠下层、林冠中层和林冠上层密度的大小对灌木层的物种数目有明显的影响,林冠层密度越大,灌木层群落的物种数目越少,复杂程度越低;偶见种和稀有种对群落物种多样性的维持具有特殊作用。综上,研究认为森林群落的垂直结构在维持森林群落整体物种多样性中具有关键作用,而灌木层在群落整体物种多样性构成中具有决定作用,森林群落中稀有种、偶见种多少在群落物种多样性构成中具有特殊作用。     

The role of fire in terrestrial vertebrate richness patterns

Productivity is strongly associated with terrestrial species richness patterns, although the mechanisms underpinning such patterns have long been debated. Despite considerable consumption of primary productivity by fire, its influence on global diversity has received relatively little study. Here we examine the sensitivity of terrestrial vertebrate biodiversity (amphibians, birds and mammals) to fire, while accounting for other drivers. We analyse global data on terrestrial vertebrate richness, net primary productivity, fire occurrence (fraction of productivity consumed) and additional influences unrelated to productivity (i.e., historical phylogenetic and area effects) on species richness. For birds, fire is associated with higher diversity, rivalling the effects of productivity on richness, and for mammals, fire's positive association with diversity is even stronger than productivity; for amphibians, in contrast, there are few clear associations. Our findings suggest an underappreciated role for fire in the generation of animal species richness and the conservation of global biodiversity.