The ‘generalism’ debate: misinterpreting the term in the empirical literature focusing on dietary breadth in insects

We here attempt to show, using three broad insect groups – Lepidoptera (mainly leaf‐chewing larval herbivores and nectar‐sucking adults), parasitic Hymenoptera (mainly endoparasitoids, especially of other insects) and aphids (sap‐sucking plant parasites) – how the terms ‘generalist’, usually equated with levels of phagy (oligo‐ and polyphagy), and ‘specialist’ (monophagy), still in widespread parlance, have often been misrepresented. Probably, the reality of generalism, be that herbivorous, predatory and parasitic, can only be demonstrated by detailed empirical field observations plus the use of high‐resolution molecular (DNA) markers, including sequencing, and thereby determining whether the organism in question is really a homogeneous species population over a wide geographical range, or rather comprises a series of morphologically similar/identical cryptic, host‐adapted specialist populations. In the case of insects, the largest group of terrestrial animals on the planet, even if it can be shown that certain species are indeed polyphagous and feed on a variety of plant hosts (herbivores) or prey species (predators and parasitoids), nevertheless, the range of these food items may be highly selective and restricted, depending on morphological–genetical (biochemical/chemical)–behavioural constraints. In the end, while some animals appear to be generalist, this situation may well be illusory. Our present recognition of the term is at best inappropriate, and at worse, inaccurate, as we demonstrate in the examples given, mostly insects. In the meantime, we suggest that the terms used should be re‐defined as four broad classes of specialism–generalism, although the apparent ‘generalism’ is itself conditional on proof following further empirical analyses.     

Europe‐wide biogeographical patterns in the diet of an ecologically and epidemiologically important mesopredator,the red fox Vulpes vulpes: a quantitative review

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Spatial heterogeneity and scale‐dependent habitat selection for two sympatric raptors in mixed‐grass prairie

Sympatric predators are predicted to partition resources, especially under conditions of food limitation. Spatial heterogeneity that influences prey availability might play an important role in the scales at which potential competitors select habitat. We assessed potential mechanisms for coexistence by examining the role of heterogeneity in resource partitioning between sympatric raptors overwintering in the southern Great Plains. We conducted surveys for wintering Red‐tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) and Northern Harrier (Circus cyanea) at two state wildlife management areas in Oklahoma, USA. We used information from repeated distance sampling to project use locations in a GIS. We applied resource selection functions to model habitat selection at three scales and analyzed for niche partitioning using the outlying mean index. Habitat selection of the two predators was mediated by spatial heterogeneity. The two predators demonstrated significant fine‐scale discrimination in habitat selection in homogeneous landscapes, but were more sympatric in heterogeneous landscapes. Red‐tailed hawk used a variety of cover types in heterogeneous landscapes but specialized on riparian forest in homogeneous landscapes. Northern Harrier specialized on upland grasslands in homogeneous landscapes but selected more cover types in heterogeneous landscapes. Our study supports the growing body of evidence that landscapes can affect animal behaviors. In the system we studied, larger patches of primary land cover types were associated with greater allopatry in habitat selection between two potentially competing predators. Heterogeneity within the scale of raptor home ranges was associated with greater sympatry in use and less specialization in land cover types selected.     

围封对温带半干旱典型草原群落种间关联的影响

为明确围栏封育对温带典型草原群落物种种间关系的影响, 运用方差比率法、基于2 × 2列联表的χ²检验、Ochiai指数、Spearman相关分析, 对位于内蒙古锡林郭勒盟太仆寺旗封育6年的围封样地及围栏外样地的主要优势种及伴生种进行了种间关联和相关性分析。同时运用生态位宽度指数分析围栏内外物种对环境资源的利用能力及种间竞争情况。结果表明: 1) 基于2 × 2列联表的χ²检验结果表明围栏内9个种对显著正联结, 4个种对显著负联结(p ≤ 0.05), 围栏外有19个种对显著正联结, 8个种对显著负联结; Spearman秩相关分析表明围栏内有10个种对显著正相关, 16个种对显著负相关, 围栏外有12个种对显著正相关, 30个种对显著负相关。χ²检验和Spearman检验结果表明围栏内群落处于稳定发展状态, 而围栏外群落处于退化阶段。2)围栏内外的优势种Ochiai指数都较高, 但χ²检验并不显著, 表明优势种之间的关联程度高, 但存在相对独立的分布格局。3)围栏内主要优势种的生态位宽度大于围栏外, 说明围栏封育保护了主要优势种的生长。     

浙江丽水虎纹蛙形态特征的两性异形和食性

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Consistency and variation in kelp holdfast assemblages: Spatial patterns of biodiversity for the major phyla at different taxonomic resolutions

The focus of this study was to measure natural spatial variability in the biodiversity of fauna inhabiting kelp holdfasts in northeastern New Zealand at several spatial scales: from meters up to hundreds of kilometers. We wished to test the hypothesis that multivariate variation and biodiversity would vary significantly at different spatial scales in different ways for the major phyla in the holdfast community (Arthropoda, Annelida, Mollusca and Bryozoa). Biodiversity was considered in terms of richness, total abundance, structural composition (as measured by the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity measure) and taxonomic breadth for each major phylum and for the assemblage as a whole. We also examined the effect of taxonomic resolution on multivariate patterns. Species richness and total abundance increased with increases in holdfast volume. Multivariate variation was greatest at the smallest spatial scale for all phyla, but different phyla showed different patterns of multivariate variation at different spatial scales. Variations among locations at the largest spatial scale were primarily due to differences in the composition and richness of bryozoans and molluscs. Location effects became less and less distinct with decreases in taxonomic resolution. There were very few significant differences in richness or abundance for holdfasts of a given volume, taxonomic breadth did not vary significantly across locations, nor did the proportional abundances of phyla. These consistencies across large spatial scales in the absence of environmental impacts and results from other studies suggest that holdfast communities in New Zealand systems would provide a useful model assemblage against which future impacts may be detected as changes in proportions of component phyla. In addition, high variability detected at small and large scales at the species level, especially for bryozoans and molluscs, suggest that these communities may also provide unique opportunities for studying and understanding sources and functions of marine biodiversity.     

Optimal foraging constrains macroecological patterns: body size and dietary niche breadth in lizards

Aim  To explore and identify probable mechanisms contributing to the relationships among body size, dietary niche breadth and mean, minimum, maximum and range of prey size in predaceous lizards.
Location  Our data set includes species from tropical rainforests, semi-arid regions of Brazil, and from deserts of the south-western United States, Australia and the Kalahari of Africa.
Methods  We calculated phylogenetic and non-phylogenetic regressions among predator body size, dietary breath and various prey size measures.
Results  We found a negative association between body size and dietary niche breadth in 159 lizard species sampled across most evolutionary lineages of squamate reptiles and across major continents and habitats. We also show that mean, minimum, maximum and range of prey size were positively associated with body size.
Main conclusions  Our results suggest not only that larger lizards tend to eat larger prey, but in doing so offset their use of smaller prey. Reduction of dietary niche breadth with increased body size in these lizards suggests that large predators target large and more profitable prey. Consequently, the negative association between body size and niche breadth in predators most likely results from optimal foraging. Though this result may appear paradoxical and runs counter to previous studies, resources for predators may be predictably more limited than resources for herbivores, thus driving selection for more profitable prey.     

Interspecific differences in population trends of Spanish birds are related to habitat and climatic preferences

Aim Animal monitoring programmes have allowed analyses of population trends, most of which now comment on the possible effect of global climate change. However, the relationship between the interspecific variation in population trends and species traits, such as habitat preferences, niche breadth or distribution patterns, has received little attention, in spite of its usefulness in the construction of ecological generalizations. The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine whether there are characteristics shared among species with upwards or downwards trends, and (2) to assess whether population changes agree with what could be expected under global warming (a decrease in species typical of cooler environments). Location The Spanish part of the Iberian Peninsula (c. 500,000 km²) in the south‐western part of the Mediterranean Basin. Methods We modelled recent breeding population changes (1996–2004), in areas without apparent land use changes, for 57 common passerine birds with species‐specific ecological and distributional patterns as explanatory variables. Results One‐half of these species have shown a generalized pattern towards the increase of their populations, while only one‐tenth showed a significant decrease. One half (54%) of the interspecific variability in yearly population trends is explained considering species‐specific traits. Species showing more marked increases preferred wooded habitats, were habitat generalists and occupied warmer and wetter areas, while moderate decreases were found for open country habitats in drier areas. Main conclusions The coherent pattern in population trends we found disagrees with the proposed detrimental effect of global warming on bird populations of western Europe, which is expected to be more intense in bird species inhabiting cooler areas and habitats. Such a pattern suggests that factors other than the increase in temperature may be brought to discussions on global change as relevant components to explain recent changes in biodiversity.     

太白红杉群落优势种的生态位研究

应用Levins和Shannon-Wiener生态位宽度指数及Pianka生态位重叠指数,研究了太白红杉群落12个优势种的生态位宽度和生态位重叠。结果表明,乔木层中太白红杉的生态位宽度最大,对高海拔地区的环境适应能力较强,巴山冷杉对的低海拔地区的环境适应能力较强;灌木层中香柏的生态位宽度最大,华西忍冬、华西银腊梅、太白忍冬次之,头花杜鹃的生态位宽度最小。乔木层中太白红杉与巴山冷杉的生态位重叠较大,但二者只在低海拔分布范围有重叠;灌木层头花杜鹃的分布范围较大,与其它3个种的生态位重叠也最大,另外3个种的生态位重叠较小;草本层中毛状苔草、羊茅和嵩草的生态位重叠较大,而大叶碎米荠和太白银莲花的生态位重叠较小。