ECHOLOCATION IN DOLPHINS WITH A DOLPHIN-BAT COMPARISON

ABSTRACT

Dolphins possess a highly sophisticated auditory system and a keen capability for echolocation. Signals are emitted in the form of high intensity, short duration, broadband exponentially decaying pulses. The frequency spectra of echolocation signals used by many dolphins are dependent on the output intensity of the signals and not on any fine tuning by the animals. When the output intensity is low, the center frequency of the click tends to be low. As the output intensity increases, the center frequency also tends to increase. The pulses propagate from the dolphin's melon in a relatively narrow beam, and echoes are received via the lower jaw, with a slightly wider beam. Echo- locating dolphins can detect targets at ranges of approximately 100 plus meters, depending on the size of the targets. Target discrimination experiments have shown that dolphins can discriminate the shape, size, material composition and internal structure of targets from the echoes. The broadband short duration properties of the signal allow the echoes to have high temporal resolution, so that within the structure of the echoes a considerable amount of information on the properties of the target can be conveyed. A brief comparison between the bat and dolphin sonar system will also be made. Bats typically emit much longer signals and a wider variety of different types of signals than dolphins. Signals used by some bats are suited to detecting Doppler shift, whereas the dolphin signal is designed to be tolerant of Doppler effects.     

Models of Eucalypt phenology predict bat population flux

Fruit bats (Pteropodidae) have received increased attention after the recent emergence of notable viral pathogens of bat origin. Their vagility hinders data collection on abundance and distribution, which constrains modeling efforts and our understanding of bat ecology, viral dynamics, and spillover. We addressed this knowledge gap with models and data on the occurrence and abundance of nectarivorous fruit bat populations at 3 day roosts in southeast Queensland. We used environmental drivers of nectar production as predictors and explored relationships between bat abundance and virus spillover. Specifically, we developed several novel modeling tools motivated by complexities of fruit bat foraging ecology, including: (1) a dataset of spatial variables comprising Eucalypt‐focused vegetation indices, cumulative precipitation, and temperature anomaly; (2) an algorithm that associated bat population response with spatial covariates in a spatially and temporally relevant way given our current understanding of bat foraging behavior; and (3) a thorough statistical learning approach to finding optimal covariate combinations. We identified covariates that classify fruit bat occupancy at each of our three study roosts with 86–93% accuracy. Negative binomial models explained 43–53% of the variation in observed abundance across roosts. Our models suggest that spatiotemporal heterogeneity in Eucalypt‐based food resources could drive at least 50% of bat population behavior at the landscape scale. We found that 13 spillover events were observed within the foraging range of our study roosts, and they occurred during times when models predicted low population abundance. Our results suggest that, in southeast Queensland, spillover may not be driven by large aggregations of fruit bats attracted by nectar‐based resources, but rather by behavior of smaller resident subpopulations. Our models and data integrated remote sensing and statistical learning to make inferences on bat ecology and disease dynamics. This work provides a foundation for further studies on landscape‐scale population movement and spatiotemporal disease dynamics.     

Agricultural intensification alters bat assemblage composition and abundance in a dynamic Neotropical landscape

The recent trend of agricultural intensification in tropical landscapes poses a new threat to biodiversity conservation. Conversion of previously heterogeneous agricultural landscapes to intensive plantation agriculture simplifies and homogenizes the landscape, reducing availability, and connectivity of natural habitat for native species. To assess the impact of agricultural intensification on bats, we characterized the bat assemblage in the Sarapiquí region of Costa Rica, where heterogeneous land uses are being converted to intensive, large‐scale pineapple plantations. In 2012 and 2013, we sampled bats in 20 remnant forest patches surrounded by varying proportions of pasture, mature forest, and pineapple and captured 1821 individual bats representing 39 species. We used ordination analyses to evaluate changes in species composition, where pineapple is the main component of the agricultural matrix. We identified landscape metrics specifically correlated with pineapple and used multiple linear regression to test their effects on bat species richness, diversity, and guild‐specific relative abundance. Results suggest pineapple expansion is driving changes in assemblage composition in remnant forest patches, resulting in new assemblages with higher proportions of frugivorous bats and lower proportions of insectivorous bats than in continuous mature forests. In addition, while pineapple does not diminish total bat species richness and diversity, the reduced forest cover and increased distance between forest patches in pineapple plantations has a significant negative impact on the relative abundance of insectivores. We also identify a potential threshold effect whereby patches surrounded by more than 50 percent forest can retain assemblage composition similar to that found in continuous mature forest.     

Bats relocate maternity colony after the natural loss of roost trees

Understanding the ephemerality of trees used as roosts by wildlife, and the number of roost trees needed to sustain their populations, is important for forest management and wildlife conservation. Several studies indicate that roosts are limiting to bats, but few studies have monitored longevity of roost trees used by bats over several years. From 2004–2007 in Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park, Saskatchewan, Canada, several big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) from a maternity group roosted in cavities in trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) trees approximately 7 km southeast away from their original known roosting area (RA1). Using a long-term data set of the roost trees used by bats in this area from 2000–2007, we evaluated whether the movement of bats to the new roosting area (RA4) corresponded with annual and cumulative losses of roost trees. We also determined whether longevity of the roosts from the time we discovered bats first using them differed between the 2 roosting areas based on Kaplan-Meier estimates. Bats began using RA4 in addition to RA1 in 2004, when the cumulative loss of roost trees in RA1 over 3 consecutive years reached 18%. Most bats exclusively roosted in RA4 in 2007, when the cumulative loss of roost trees over 6 consecutive years had reached 46% in RA1. Annual survival for roost trees, from when we first discovered bats using them, was generally lower in RA1 than in RA4. Our results suggest that the movement of bats to the new roosting area corresponded with high losses of roost trees in RA1. This provides additional evidence that to maintain high densities of suitable roost trees for bats in northern temperature forests over several decades, management plans need to recruit live and dead trees in multiple age classes and stages of decay that will be suitable for the formation of new cavities. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Trophic niche changes associated with habitat fragmentation in a Neotropical bat species

Habitat fragmentation could alter ecological traits including species trophic habits. Here, we used carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios to establish differences in isotopic niche width and food resource use between forest fragments and the continuous forest for the phyllostomid frugivorous bat Artibeus lituratus. Using mist nests, we captured bats from two forest fragments and two sites in continuous forest, and sampled from each individual captured three body tissues with contrasting turnover rates (skin, muscle, and liver). Samples were collected between February and March (austral summer) and between August and September (austral winter). In addition, in each sampling site and season we collected potential food resources (fruits and insects) consumed by our A. lituratus. Our findings indicate that A. lituratus had a predominantly omnivorous diet, with high consumption of insects during summer in forest fragments. The increasing consumption of insects in these fragments seems to have led to a wider isotopic niche, in relation to the continuous forest. Because A. lituratus is typically a seed disperser, changes in trophic habits in the forest fragments from frugivory to insectivory may diminish their role in forest regeneration. Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.     

Postnatal growth,age estimation and development of foraging behaviour in the fulvous fruit bat<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rousettus leschenaulti</Emphasis>

This study documents the postnatal growth, age estimation and development of the foraging behaviour of the fulvous fruit batRousettus leschenaulti under captive conditions. At birth, the young were naked and pink with closed eyes and folded pinnae. By day four of age, their eyes had opened and the pups began to move. The mean length of forearm in 5-day-old pups was 24.9 mm and body mass was 10.8 g, equivalent to 32.3% and 14.2% of the values from postpartum females. The length of forearm and body mass increased linearly until 45 and 50 days, respectively, and thereafter maintained an apparent stability. The epiphyseal gap of the fourth metacarpal-phalangeal joint increased until 15 days, then decreased linearly until 75 days and thereafter closed. Age was estimated quantitatively, based on linear changes observed in the length of the forearm and epiphyseal gap. Pups began to roost separately, but adjacent to their mothers when 30 days old and flew clumsily when they were about 40 days old. After attaining clumsy flight, the young bats made independent foraging attempts feebly by biting and licking small fruit pieces. Young bats were engaged in suckling as well as ingesting fruits when they were about 50 days old. Between 55 and 65 days, they flew well and fed on fruits. At the age of 75 days, the young bats were completely weaned and at two months, their foraging behaviour was similar to that of their mothers. There was no significant difference in the growth pattern of the young maintained in captivity compared with those under natural conditions.     

Life history,ecology and longevity in bats

The evolutionary theory of aging predicts that life span should decrease in response to the amount of mortality caused by extrinsic sources. Using this prediction, we selected six life history and ecological factors to use in a comparative analysis of longevity among 64 bat species. On average, the maximum recorded life span of a bat is 3.5 times greater than a non-flying placental mammal of similar size. Records of individuals surviving more than 30 years in the wild now exist for five species. Univariate and multivariate analyses of species data, as well as of phylogenetically independent contrasts obtained using a supertree of Chiroptera, reveal that bat life span significantly increases with hibernation, body mass and occasional cave use, but decreases with reproductive rate and is not influenced by diet, colony size or the source of the record. These results are largely consistent with extrinsic mortality risk acting as a determinant of bat longevity. Nevertheless, the strong association between life span and both reproductive rate and hibernation also suggests that bat longevity is strongly influenced by seasonal allocation of non-renewable resources to reproduction. We speculate that hibernation may provide a natural example of caloric restriction, which is known to increase longevity in other mammals.     

Cavity selection for roosting,and roosting ecology of forest-dwelling Australian Owlet-nightjars (Aegotheles cristatus)

Abstract We compared a variety of attributes of tree cavities used for roosting by radio-tagged Australian Owlet-nightjars Aegotheles cristatus with randomly chosen prospective cavities to test which features are important for the species. Owlet-nightjars preferentially roosted in tree cavities closer to the ground, in trees with a significantly greater number of cavities and significantly closer to another tree with a cavity than expected by chance. There was also a significant interaction between cavity height and number of cavities in the tree. Tree size, decay stage and tree species were not statistically important cues used for making site choices. The requirements for Owlet-nightjars differ from those of most other Australian birds that use tree holes and also from most insectivorous bats. Telemetry data indicate that Owlet-nightjars move ～300 m between roost sites every 9 days on average. Individual birds used 2-6 different cavities during the 1–4-month period over which they were followed. The reasons for the relatively low levels of site fidelity are unknown.     

恒频-调频蝙蝠下丘神经元的恢复周期决定声脉冲跟随率

为探究恒频-调频蝙蝠下丘神经元恢复周期特点及其对声脉冲跟随率的影响,实验采用模拟的大蹄蝠(Hipposideros armiger)自然状态下的恒频-调频发声信号为声刺激,在5只听力正常的大蹄蝠上记录了下丘神经元的声反应和恢复周期(n = 93)．结果发现,根据神经元恢复率达50%时的双声刺激间隔(inter pulse interval,IPI),可将其分为长时恢复型(long recovery,LR;47.4%)、中等时间恢复型(moderate recovery,MR;35.1%)和短时恢复型(short recovery,SR;17.5%)．每种类型依据其恢复率随IPI增加而呈现的不同变化又可进一步分为单IPI反应区神经元,多IPI反应区神经元,以及单调IPI反应神经元．LR,MR和SR型神经元恢复率达50%时的平均IPI分别为(64.0 ± 24.8),(19.6 ± 5.8)和(7.1 ± 2.4) ms (P < 0.001),相对应的平均理论每秒声脉冲数分别为(18.2 ± 7.0),(55.4 ± 15.7)和(171.3 ± 102.9) Hz (P < 0.001)．结果提示,单IPI和多IPI反应区神经元具有特殊IPI反应特性,能对蝙蝠捕食和巡航期间所处的时相做出准确判断,而单调IPI反应神经元对IPI变化的敏感性较强,但时相判断性较差．另外LR,MR和SR型神经元恢复周期和理论脉冲跟随率的平均结果均能与这种蝙蝠回声定位期间3个时相的发声行为相匹配,且神经元恢复周期参与决定声脉冲跟随率,满足了蝙蝠巡航、捕食的行为学需要．