Winter severity predicts the timing of host shifts in the mosquito Culex erraticus

In temperate regions, seasonal epidemics of many mosquito-borne viruses are triggered when mosquito populations shift from feeding on avian to mammalian hosts. We investigated effects of temperature on the timing of bird-to-mammal shifts using an 8 year dataset of blood-meals from a mosquito (Culex erraticus) in Alabama, USA. As expected, Cx. erraticus shifted from avian to mammalian hosts each year. The timing of the shift, however, varied considerably among years. Harshness of the preceding winter (chill accumulation) explained 93 per cent of the variation in the timing of bird-to-mammal shifts, with shifts occurring later in years following harsher winters. We hypothesize that winter temperatures drive the timing of bird-to-mammal shifts through effects on host reproductive phenology. Because mosquitoes target birds during the nesting season, and bird nesting occurs later in years following colder winters, later nesting dates result in a concomitant delay in the timing of bird-to-mammal host shifts. Global increases in winter temperatures could cause significant changes in the timing of seasonal host shifts by mosquitoes, with prolonged periods of epidemic transmission of mosquito-borne diseases.     

Assessment of arbovirus vector infection rates using variable size pooling

Pool testing of vector samples for arboviruses is widely used in surveillance programmes. The proportion of infected mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) is often estimated from the minimum infection rate (MIR), based on the assumption of only one infected mosquito per positive pool. This assumption becomes problematic when pool size is large and/or infection rate is high. By relaxing this constraint, maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) is more useful for a wide range of infection levels that may be encountered in the field. We demonstrate the difference between these two estimation approaches using West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data from vectors collected by gravid traps in Chicago during 2002. MLE of infection rates of Culex mosquitoes was as high as 60 per 1000 at the peak of transmission in August, whereas MIR was less than 30 per 1000. More importantly, we demonstrate roles of various pooling strategies for better estimation of infection rates based on simulation studies with hypothetical mosquito samples of 18 pools. Variable size pooling (with a serial pool sizes of 5, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 individuals) performed consistently better than a constant size pooling of 50 individuals. We conclude that variable pool size coupled with MLE is critical for accurate estimates of mosquito infection rates in WNV epidemic seasons.     

中国新疆维吾尔自治区不明原因发热人群中Tahyna病毒感染状况调查

本研究通过对新疆地区不明原因发热人群血清Tahyna病毒抗体进行检测,以了解Tahyna病毒在当地的感染状况及分布特征。通过间接免疫荧光方法对新疆维吾尔自治区南部喀什地区、北部伊犁地区742例不明原因发热患者急性期血清标本进行Tahyna病毒抗体检测,并对IgM抗体阳性标本平行进行Tahyna病毒、Snowshoe hare病毒和Inkoo病毒三种抗原性相似的布尼亚病毒的蚀斑减少中和试验。研究结果显示新疆南部喀什地区采集不明原因发热患者急性期血清中,IgM抗体阳性率5.3%,IgG抗体阳性率18.3%;新疆北部伊犁地区采集的急性期患者血清标本中并未发现TAHV IgM抗体阳性;蚀斑减少中和试验结果显示,TAHV IgM抗体阳性患者血清中Tahyna病毒中和抗体滴度较其它两种布尼亚病毒中和抗体滴度升高明显。本研究证实新疆南部地区不明原因发热人群存在Tahyna病毒的急性感染和既往感染,为相关疾病的进一步监测提供基础。     

Virulence variation among epidemic and non-epidemic strains of Saint Louis encephalitis virus circulating in Argentina

Saint Louis encephalitis virus caused an outbreak of febrile illness and encephalitis cases in Córdoba, Argentina, in 2005. During this outbreak, the strain CbaAr-4005 was isolated from Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes. We hypothesised that this epidemic variant would be more virulent in a mouse model than two other non-epidemic strains (78V-6507 and CorAn-9275) isolated under different epidemiological conditions. To test this hypothesis, we performed a biological characterisation in a murine model, including mortality, morbidity and infection percentages and lethal infection indices using the three strains. Mice were separated into age groups (7, 10 and 21-day-old mice) and analysed after infection. The strain CbaAr-4005 was the most infective and lethal of the three variants, whereas the other two strains exhibited a decreasing mortality percentage with increasing animal age. The strain CbaAr-4005 produced the highest morbidity percentages and no significant differences among age groups were observed. The epidemic strain caused signs of illness in all inoculated animals and showed narrower ranges from the onset of symptoms than the other strains. CbaAr-4005 was the most virulent for Swiss albino mice. Our results highlight the importance of performing biological characterisations of arbovirus strains likely to be responsible for emerging or reemerging human diseases.     

Sex ratio distortion and reduced lifespan of Glossina pallidipes infected with the virus causing salivary gland hyperplasia

A virus infection, associated with enlargement of the salivary glands (ESG) and gonadal pathology in Glossina pallidipes Austen (Diptera: Glossinidae), was studied in field-caught and laboratory-reared flies. The lifespan of both sexes of infected (ESG-) flies was significantly shorter than that of flies with normal salivary glands (NSG). NSG-females, mated to infected males only or to both infected and normal males, produced predominantly male progeny. In general, NSG-parents produced only NSG-progeny, and ESG-females only ESG-progeny. ESG-males were usually sterile, but a few NSG-females inseminated by ESG-males produced NSG-progeny. One NSG-female, mated first to an ESG-male and then to an NSG-male, produced 3 ESG-sons. As will be discussed, this virus may have important effects (reduced insemination rates, fecundity and lifespan, and sex ratio distortion) on laboratory colonies of G. pallidipes as well as on the regulation of its natural populations.

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Résumé C'est à partir de mouches capturées et élevées au laboratoire à Kibwezi au Kenya, qu'a été étudiée l'infection virale, accompagnée d'hyperplasie des glandes salivaires (ESG) et la pathologie des gonades de G. pallidipes Aust. La durée de vie des mouches contaminées (ESG)_des 2 sexes était significativement plus brève que celle des mouches aux glandes salivaires normales (NSG). Des femelles NSG accouplées uniquement à des mâles contaminés ou à des mâles sains et contaminés, ont donné une descendance majoritairement mâle.En général, des parents NSG ont donné uniquement des enfants NSG, et des femelles ESG des enfants ESG. Les mâles ESG étaient généralement stériles, mais quelques femelles NSG inséminées par des mâles ESG ont donné des enfants NSG. Une femelle NSG accouplée en premier avec un mâle ESG et ensuite à un mâle NSG, a donné 3 fils ESG. Bien que les transmissions orales et sexuelles puissent être naturellement des modes de contamination, la transmission verticale de la mère à la descendance semble être le mécanisme le plus significatif du maintien de ce virus. L'apparition d'enfants ESG de parents NSG est dans quelques cas vraisemblablement due à la présence du virus chez quelques mouches NSG sans qu'il y ait apparemment infection, sans symptômes visibles. Le virus ESG peut avoir des effets importants (diminution des taux d'insémination, de la fécondité, de la durée de vie, et modification de la fréquence des sexes) dans les souches de laboratoire et aussi sur la régulation des populations naturelles de ce vecteur des trypanosomiases africaines.

     

Colonization of a newly constructed urban wetland by mosquitoes in England: implications for nuisance and vector species

Urban wetlands are being created in the UK as part of sustainable urban drainage strategies, to create wetland habitats lost during development, to provide a habitat for protected species, and to increase the public's access to ‘blue‐space’ for the improvement of health and well‐being. Sewage treatment reedbeds are also being incorporated into newly constructed wetlands to offer an alternative approach to dealing with sewage. This field study aims to provide the first UK evidence of how such newly constructed aquatic habitats are colonized by mosquitoes. A number of new aquatic habitats were surveyed for immature mosquitoes every fortnight over the first two years following wetland construction. The majority of mosquitoes collected were Culex sp. and were significantly associated with the sewage treatment reedbed system, particularly following storm events and sewage inflow. Other more natural aquatic habitats that were subject to cycles of drying and re‐wetting contributed the majority of the remaining mosquitoes colonizing. Colonization of permanent habitats was slow, particularly where fluctuations in water levels inhibited emergent vegetation growth. It is recommended that during the planning process for newly constructed wetlands consideration is given on a case‐by‐case basis to the impact of mosquitoes, either as a cause of nuisance or as potential vectors. Although ornithophagic Culex dominated in this wetland, their potential role as enzootic West Nile virus vectors should not be overlooked.     

Replication of dengue,yellow fever,St. Louis encephalitis and vesicular stomatitis viruses in a cell line (TRA-171) derived fromToxorhynchites amboinensis

Summary The replication of seven arboviruses in a cell line (TRA-171) derived from a nonhematophagous mosquito was studied. Four serotypes of laboratory adapted and three serotypes of unadapted dengue viruses replicated in the TRA-171 cell line, inducing syncytia. The sensitivity of TRA-171 cells to dengue virus infection was comparable to that ofAedes albopictus orA. pseudoscutellaris cells. Yellow fever, St. Louis encephalitis, and vesicular stomatitis viruses also replicated. All four serotypes of dengue viruses could be plaque assayed with TRA-171 cell cultures. Use of trade names is for identification only and does not constitute endorsement by the Public Health Service or by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.     

Dispersing hemipteran vectors have reduced arbovirus prevalence

A challenge in managing vector-borne zoonotic diseases in human and wildlife populations is predicting where epidemics or epizootics are likely to occur, and this requires knowing in part the likelihood of infected insect vectors dispersing pathogens from existing infection foci to novel areas. We measured prevalence of an arbovirus, Buggy Creek virus, in dispersing and resident individuals of its exclusive vector, the ectoparasitic swallow bug (Oeciacus vicarius), that occupies cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) colonies in western Nebraska. Bugs colonizing new colony sites and immigrating into established colonies by clinging to the swallows’ legs and feet had significantly lower virus prevalence than bugs in established colonies and those that were clustering in established colonies before dispersing. The reduced likelihood of infected bugs dispersing to new colony sites indicates that even heavily infected sites may not always export virus to nearby foci at a high rate. Infected arthropods should not be assumed to exhibit the same dispersal or movement behaviour as uninfected individuals, and these differences in dispersal should perhaps be considered in the epidemiology of vector-borne pathogens such as arboviruses.