THE EFFECTIVE SIZE OF A HIERARCHICALLY STRUCTURED POPULATION

A knowledge of the effective size of a population (N_e) is important in understanding its current and future evolutionary potential. Unfortunately, the effective size of a hierarchically structured population is not, in general, equal to the sum of its parts. In particular, the inbreeding structure has a major influence on N_e. Here I link N_e to Wright's hierarchical measures of inbreeding, F_IS and F_ST, for an island-structured population (or metapopulation) of size N_T. The influence of F_ST depends strongly on the degree to which island productivity is regulated. In the absence of local regulation (the interdemic model), interdemic genetic drift reduces N_e. When such drift is combined with local inbreeding under otherwise ideal conditions, the effects of F_IS and F_ST are identical: increasing inbreeding either within or between islands reduces N_e, with N_e = N_T/[(1 + F_IS)(1 + F_ST) ? 2F_ISF_ST]. However, if islands are all equally productive because of local density regulation (the traditional island model), then N_e = N_T/[(1 + F_IS)(1 –F_ST)] and the effect of F_ST is reversed. Under the interdemic model, random variation in the habitat quality (and hence productivity) of islands act to markedly decrease N_e. This variation has no effect under the island model because, by definition, all islands are equally productive. Even when no permanent island structure exists, spatial differences in habitat quality can significantly increase the overall variance in reproductive success of both males and females and hence lower N_e. Each of these basic results holds when other nonideal factors are added to the model. These factors, deviations from a 1:1 sex ratio, greater than Poisson variance in female reproductive success, and variation in male mating success due to polygynous mating systems, all act to lower N_e. The effects of male and female variance on N_e have important differences because only females affect island productivity. Finally, it is noted that to use these relationships, F_IS and F_ST must be estimated according to Wright's definition (and corrected to have a zero expectation under the null model). A commonly used partitioning (θ, θ_g) can be biased if either island size or the number of islands is small.     

SEXUAL SELECTION ON MATURATION TIME AND BODY SIZE IN SPHENARIUM PURPURASCENS (ORTHOPTERA: PYRGOMORPHIDAE): CORRELATED RESPONSE TO SELECTION

We measured in the field the intensity and mode (i.e., directional, stabilizing) of sexual selection acting jointly on body size and time of sexual maturity in the univoltine, polygamous grasshopper Sphenarium purpurascens. Statistical analyses indicated that selection favored large and protandrous males in terms of a higher mating success. At the same time, evidence of correlational selection acting simultaneously on body size and time to sexual maturity was found. Thus, selection should strengthen the relationship between body size and the time of sexual maturity. Theoretical work suggests the existence of a trade-off between reaching a large size and early sexual maturation in insects. The present study does not support the existence of this kind of trade-off. Recent theoretical and empirical work like the one reported here suggests that such a trade-off may not be necessarily expected if growth rates (which are often assumed to be invariable) are affected by environmental and genetic factors.     

Trade-offs limiting the evolution of coloniality: ecological displacement rates used to measure small costs

Multicellular organisms that benefit from division of labour are presumably descended from colonial species that initially derived benefits from larger colony size, before the evolution of specialization. Life in a colony can have costs as well as benefits, but these can be hard to measure. We measured physiological costs to life in a colony using a novel method based on population dynamics, comparing growth rates of unicells and kairomone-induced colonies of a green alga Desmodesmus subspicatus against a reference co-occurring species. Coloniality negatively affected growth during the initial log growth phase, while no adverse effect was detected under nutrient-limited competitive conditions. The results point to costs associated with traits involved in rapid growth rather than those associated with efficient growth under resource scarcity. Some benefits of coloniality (e.g. defence from herbivory) may be different from when this trait evolved, but our approach shows how costs would have depended on conditions.     

榆树隐毡蚧各龄若虫和雄成虫形态及其生物学记述(同翅目: 蚧总科: 毡蚧科)

榆树隐毡蚧 Cryptococcus ulmi Tang et Hao是近年来在北京和山西中部发现的一种榆树新害虫。本文首次详细记述和图示了该虫幼期各虫态和雄成虫的形态特征 ;简要报道了其生物学特性 :一年发生 1代 ,以受精雌成虫在树干裂缝内越冬 ,卵胎生 ,每雌产仔 2 3～ 2 5头 ,平均值 35.2头。     

POLLINATOR-MEDIATED SELECTION ON FLORAL DISPLAY AND FLOWERING TIME IN THE PERENNIAL HERB ARABIDOPSIS LYRATA

The evolution of floral display and flowering time in animal-pollinated plants is commonly attributed to pollinator-mediated selection. Yet, the causes of selection on flowering phenology and traits contributing to floral display have rarely been tested experimentally in natural populations. We quantified phenotypic selection on morphological and phenological characters in the perennial, outcrossing herb Arabidopsis lyrata in two years using female reproductive success as a proxy of fitness. To determine whether selection on floral display and flowering phenology can be attributed to interactions with pollinators, selection was quantified both for open-pollinated controls and for plants receiving supplemental hand-pollination. We documented directional selection for many flowers, large petals, late start of flowering, and early end of flowering. Seed output was pollen-limited in both years and supplemental hand-pollination reduced the magnitude of selection on number of flowers, and reversed the direction of selection on end of flowering. The results demonstrate that interactions with pollinators may affect the strength of selection on floral display and the direction of selection on phenology of flowering in natural plant populations. They thus support the contention that pollinators can drive the evolution of both floral display and flowering time.     

结扎大鼠左冠状动脉不同时间制备心肌梗死模型的比较

目的探索大鼠左冠状动脉前降支不同结扎处理后,对心肌形态学及心功能的影响,以建立适合移植干细胞再生修复心肌梗死研究的稳定、可靠和更合乎发病机制的动物模型。方法雄性SD大鼠70只,随机分为五组。即:结扎(15、30、456、0 min)再灌、结扎非再灌。于处理后1 d、1周2、周或4周动态观察心肌梗死变化,并于处理一月后测量动脉收缩压(ASP)、动脉舒张压(ADP),左室收缩压(LVSP),左室舒张末压(LVEDP)及左室压力上升及下降最大速度(±dp/dtmax)。结果引起明显的心肌梗死至少需要结扎30 min。结扎(456、0 min)再灌、结扎非再灌的心肌梗死明显,并观察到梗死区域心肌已绝大部分纤维化,且梗死面积变化较恒定。同时测定不同结扎时间心功能的变化发现,结扎(456、0 min)再灌或结扎非再灌各组ASP、DAP、LVSP、±dp/dtmax显著下降,LVEDP明显升高。并见不同结扎时间处理后,大鼠心功能的变化与心肌梗死后的梗死面积变化密切相关。结论建立了实验大鼠左冠状动脉前降支中上1/3处结扎45 min以上的大鼠心肌梗死模型。不仅合乎临床心肌梗死的发病机制,而且梗死部位、梗死区域面积稳定,适合于移植细胞再生修复心肌梗死的研究。     

Life-history variation within a three-spined stickleback population in the Camargue

Among individuals of female three-spined sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus from a population in the Camargue, southern France, studied in 12 successive years, adult L _T ranged from 31–64 mm, clutch size ranged from 33–660 eggs, and mean egg diameter per clutch ranged from 1.15–1.67 mm. Because the population was strictly annual, inter-annual variation corresponded to variation among generations having experienced different environmental conditions. Body mass varied significantly among years, suggesting an effect of varying environmental conditions. Gonad mass and clutch size increased with body mass, but mean egg diameter was not correlated to body mass. Body mass-adjusted gonad mass, interpreted as reproductive effort per clutch, did not vary significantly among years, suggesting that this trait was not influenced by environmental conditions. Body mass-adjusted clutch size and egg size varied significantly among years. Inter-annual variation in body length at breeding, clutch size and egg size was of the same order of magnitude as inter-population variation reported by other authors for this species. During the breeding season, reproductive effort and clutch size tended to increase. Egg size tended to decrease during the breeding season but this seasonal pattern varied among years. Observed life-history variation is discussed both in terms of its evolutionary significance and methodological implications in the study of life-history variation among populations.     

Sex ratio regulation in the waspEupelmus vuilleti (crwf.), an ectoparasitoid on bean weevil larvae (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

In Africa, the seeds and/or pods ofVigna unguiculata andVigna radiata (Papilionacea) are attacked in fields and storage structures by bruchid beetlesCallosobruchus maculatus andBruchidius atrolineatus, on which parasitoid communities can develop. One of these parasitoids is the solitary ectoparasitoidEupelmus vuilleti (Eupelmidae). The storage conditions ofV. unguiculata andV. radiata favor the overlapping of all host stages during several months. These conditions suggest that female parasitoids would vary the sex ratio of their offspring according to the different sizes or developmental stages of hosts. The sex ratio ofE. vuilleti was strongly related to the developmental stage of the hostC. maculatus. Under our experimental conditions, where superparasitism is rare, the proportion of daughters varied between 5 and 25% on the third larval stage but reached 70 to 90% on the pupae. The increase in the proportion of daughters was also observed in the absence of superparasitism. In this case, there was an absolute coincidence between the sex ratio of eggs laid and that of emerged adults. Manipulation of the sex of the egg by the females seems to take place at the time of the egg's fertilization. The relation between host weight and egg sex showed that the male eggs are preferentially laid on lighter host larvae and the female eggs on heavier ones.     

Population size and identity influence the reaction norm of the rare,endemic plant Cochlearia bavarica across a gradient of environmental stress

Habitat degradation and loss can result in population decline and genetic erosion, limiting the ability of organisms to cope with environmental change, whether this is through evolutionary genetic response (requiring genetic variation) or through phenotypic plasticity (i.e., the ability of a given genotype to express a variable phenotype across environments). Here we address the question whether plants from small populations are less plastic or more susceptible to environmental stress than plants from large populations. We collected seed families from small (<100) versus large natural populations (>1,000 flowering plants) of the rare, endemic plant Cochlearia bavarica (Brassicaceae). We exposed the seedlings to a range of environments, created by manipulating water supply and light intensity in a 2 x 2 factorial design in the greenhouse. We monitored plant growth and survival for 300 days. Significant effects of offspring environment on offspring characters demonstrated that there is phenotypic plasticity in the responses to environmental stress in this species. Significant effects of population size group, but mainly of population identity within the population size groups, and of maternal plant identity within populations indicated variation due to genetic (plus potentially maternal) variation for offspring traits. The environment x maternal plant identity interaction was rarely significant, providing little evidence for genetically- (plus potentially maternally-) based variation in plasticity within populations. However, significant environment x population-size-group and environment x population-identity interactions suggested that populations differed in the amount of plasticity, the mean amount being smaller in small populations than in large populations. Whereas on day 210 the differences between small and large populations were largest in the environment in which plants grew biggest (i.e., under benign conditions), on day 270 the difference was largest in stressful environments. These results show that population size and population identity can affect growth and survival differently across environmental stress gradients. Moreover, these effects can themselves be modified by time-dependent variation in the interaction between plants and their environment.