Biotechnology and the improvement of oil crops – genes,dreams and realities

During the past decade, there have been many optimistic claims concerning the potential of novel oil-based products from genetically engineered crops, particularly for the manufacture of a new generation of renewable, carbon-neutral, industrial materials. Such claims have been underpinned by an impressive series of scientific advances that have resulted in the isolation of genes encoding most of the enzymes directly involved in oil biosynthesis. In some cases, these enzymes have even been re-engineered by site-directed or random mutagenesis to allow production of new fatty acid profiles that are not present in any existing organism. This has opened up the prospect of engineering `designer oil crops' to produce novel fatty acids with chain lengths from C8 to C24 and with a wide range of industrially useful functionalities, including hydroxylation, epoxidation, and conjugated and non-conjugated double or triple bonds. However, there remain significant technical challenges before this promise of designer transgenic crops is likely to be translated into large-scale commercial reality. For example, it has proved surprisingly difficult to engineer high levels of novel fatty acids in genetically engineered transgenic plants, although many wild type seeds can readily accumulate 90–95% of a single fatty acid in their storage oil. Another complication is the recent discovery of multiple pathways of triacylglycerol biosynthesis and the difficulty in ensuring that novel fatty acids are only channelled towards storage triacylglycerols and not to membrane or signalling lipids in major target crops like rapeseed. New findings from our lab have suggested that there may also be problems with the tissue specificity of some of the `seed-specific' gene promoters that are commonly used in transgenic crops. There are also considerable and often underestimated challenges associated with the economics, management and public acceptability of all transgenic crops, even for non-food use. In most cases the projections of petroleum reserves over the next few decades make it unlikely that crop-derived commodity products that substitute for petroleum will be competitive. Also the scale of crop production required to generate millions of tonnes of commodity oils, e.g., for biodegradable plastics, is likely to seriously impinge on food production at a time of increasing global populations, and is therefore unlikely to be acceptable. An alternative strategy to transgenic oil crops is to use molecular breeding techniques in order to develop new crops that already synthesise high levels of novel fatty acids of interest. Finally, the most promising market sectors and product ranges for the future development of oil crop biotechnology will be discussed.     

农作物抗除草剂基因工程

概述抗除草剂作物基因工程抗性基因的来源,产生抗性的机理,抗除草剂外源基因的导入方法,并对目前普遍关注的抗除草剂作物的安全性问题进行了讨论,提出了抗除草剂作物研究及开发中应注意的问题。     

转基因产品的食用安全性评价

近10年来,基因工程技术取得显著进展,不少转基因作物已进入商品化生产阶段,但由于斑蝶事件的Pusztai事件,在全世界范围内又引发了新一轮对转基因食品安全性的激烈争论,作者就目前的转基因产品食用安全性评价体系做一简要综述,为我国尽快建立转基因食品安全性评价体系提供部分依据。     

Tree community structure and stem mortality along a water availability gradient in a Mexican tropical dry forest

We document spatial changes in species diversity, composition, community structure, and mortality of trees across a gradient of water availability in a tropical dry forest in western Mexico. This gradient occurs along the main stream of a small watershed of less than 1 km in length. Four 30 × 80 m plots were established systematically to include the driest (ridge top of the watershed) to the wettest sites (watershed bottom) within this watershed. All stems larger than 5 cm were identified, and measured for diameter and height. Dead stems larger than 5 cm were measured and classified as: a) found on live or dead trees, and b) standing (“snags”) or lying (“downlogs”) on the ground. The number of recorded species per plot declined from 73 to 44 species as water availability decreased. A decline in estimated total richness, and in Shannon-Wiener and Simpson diversity indices was also observed in the drier plots. Species composition strongly changed along the gradient, with the two ends of the gradient sharing only 11% of the species. Stem density and percentage of dead stems and trees increased in abundance and basal area from the wetter to the drier sites. Tree and stem size (basal area, height and stem diameter) showed the opposite trend. Nonetheless, total basal area of live trees was largest at the two end gradient locations and oscillated between 12.22 m² ha⁻¹ and 7.93 m² ha⁻¹. Proportion of snags increased towards the driest site (from 46 to 72%), while that of down logs decreased. Overall, our results suggest that small-scale gradients of water availability play a paramount role in the spatial organization of tree communities in seasonal tropical environments. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Bio‐safety evaluation of Cry1Ac,Cry2Ab,Cry1Ca,Cry1F and Vip3Aa on Harmonia axyridis larvae

Dietary exposure studies are initial steps in environmental risk assessments of genetically engineered plants on non‐target organisms. These studies are conducted in the laboratory where surrogate species are exposed to purified and biologically active insecticidal compounds at higher concentrations than those expected to occur in transgenic crops foliage. Thus, dietary exposure (early tier) tests provide robust data needed to make general conclusions about the susceptibility of the surrogate species to the test substance. For this, we developed suitable artificial diet and used it to establish a dietary exposure test for assessing the toxicity of midgut‐active insecticidal compounds to the larvae of the Asian ladybird beetle Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Using boric acid as a model compound, we validated the bioassay established for H. axyridis larvae. An artificial diet containing boric acid which negatively affected survival, development and adult weights was offered to larvae and indicated that the bioassay was able to detect toxic effects of insecticidal substances incorporated in diets. Using this dietary exposure test, environmental risk assessment of Cry1Ac, Cry2Ab, Cry1Ca, Cry1F and the non‐Cry protein Vip3Aa was evaluated by analysing pupation rates, adult emergence rates, 7‐day larval weights, and freshly emerged male and female weights among the toxin treatments and a pure artificial diet. These life‐table parameters did not vary among artificial diets containing 200 μg/g Bt proteins or pure artificial diet. In contrast, boric acid adversely affected all life‐table parameters. Thus on these bases, we concluded H. axyridis larvae are not sensitive to these Bt proteins expressed in genetically engineered crops.     

Integrated weed management systems with herbicide-tolerant crops in the European Union: lessons learnt from home and abroad

Conventionally bred (CHT) and genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops have changed weed management practices and made an important contribution to the global production of some commodity crops. However, a concern is that farm management practices associated with the cultivation of herbicide-tolerant (HT) crops further deplete farmland biodiversity and accelerate the evolution of herbicide-resistant (HR) weeds. Diversification in crop systems and weed management practices can enhance farmland biodiversity, and reduce the risk of weeds evolving herbicide resistance. Therefore, HT crops are most effective and sustainable as a component of an integrated weed management (IWM) system. IWM advocates the use of multiple effective strategies or tactics to manage weed populations in a manner that is economically and environmentally sound. In practice, however, the potential benefits of IWM with HT crops are seldom realized because a wide range of technical and socio-economic factors hamper the transition to IWM. Here, we discuss the major factors that limit the integration of HT crops and their associated farm management practices in IWM systems. Based on the experience gained in countries where CHT or GMHT crops are widely grown and the increased familiarity with their management, we propose five actions to facilitate the integration of HT crops in IWM systems within the European Union.     

Environmental costs and benefits of growing Miscanthus for bioenergy in the UK

Planting the perennial biomass crop Miscanthus in the UK could offset 2–13 Mt oil eq. yr^?1, contributing up to 10% of current energy use. Policymakers need assurance that upscaling Miscanthus production can be performed sustainably without negatively impacting essential food production or the wider environment. This study reviews a large body of Miscanthus relevant literature into concise summary statements. Perennial Miscanthus has energy output/input ratios 10 times higher (47.3 ± 2.2) than annual crops used for energy (4.7 ± 0.2 to 5.5 ± 0.2), and the total carbon cost of energy production (1.12 g CO₂‐C eq. MJ^?1) is 20–30 times lower than fossil fuels. Planting on former arable land generally increases soil organic carbon (SOC) with Miscanthus sequestering 0.7–2.2 Mg C4‐C ha^?1 yr^?1. Cultivation on grassland can cause a disturbance loss of SOC which is likely to be recovered during the lifetime of the crop and is potentially mitigated by fossil fuel offset. N₂O emissions can be five times lower under unfertilized Miscanthus than annual crops and up to 100 times lower than intensive pasture. Nitrogen fertilizer is generally unnecessary except in low fertility soils. Herbicide is essential during the establishment years after which natural weed suppression by shading is sufficient. Pesticides are unnecessary. Water‐use efficiency is high (e.g. 5.5–9.2 g aerial DM (kg H₂O)^?1, but high biomass productivity means increased water demand compared to cereal crops. The perennial nature and belowground biomass improves soil structure, increases water‐holding capacity (up by 100–150 mm), and reduces run‐off and erosion. Overwinter ripening increases landscape structural resources for wildlife. Reduced management intensity promotes earthworm diversity and abundance although poor litter palatability may reduce individual biomass. Chemical leaching into field boundaries is lower than comparable agriculture, improving soil and water habitat quality.     

转基因Bt水稻花粉在桑叶上的自然飘落浓度

实地(杭州)调查了桑稻混种地区水稻花粉飘落到桑叶上的浓度,同时对转Bt基因水稻花粉向桑叶上飘飞程度进行了田间试验。20个采样点的调查结果显示,超过一半(54．5％)的桑叶检测到了水稻花粉,其浓度变化范围为13．3—199．0粒/cm^2,平均浓度为92．9粒/cm^2,与109．1粒/cm^2(该浓度影响家蚕生长发育)持平(t＝0．10,P＞0．5)。不同桑稻距离(0-10m)的桑叶花粉浓度总体上是距离越近花粉浓度越高。将处于开花期的转基因Bt水稻和非转基因水稻植株(各3株)同时放入桑园中,然后观察水稻植株周边桑叶飘落上水稻花粉的浓度。两次试验采集的桑叶自然飘落的水稻花粉平均为3．8粒/cm^2,这一结果证明水稻花粉可飘落到桑叶上,从而支持上述调查结果;试验同时证实转基因Bt水稻和非转基因水稻植株的花粉飘飞能力没有差异。以上研究结果表明,Bt水稻在我国南方养蚕地区推广将可能对家蚕的生长发育造成负面影响。     

木本植物多倍体育种研究进展

本文从木本植物多倍体育种资源、多倍体育种途径和多倍体鉴定等方面,对国内外木本植物的多倍体育种研究进展进行了综述.与农作物相比,尽管木本植物在多倍体育种中有其缺陷,但木本植物丰富的物种资源及无性繁殖等特性较大程度地发挥了多倍体育种的优越性.