Regulation of Bt crops in Canada

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) regulates environmental releases of plants with novel traits, which include transgenic plants such as Bt crops. Bt crops are regulated in Canada because they express insect resistance novel to their species. Commercialization of crops with novel traits such as the production of insecticidal Bt proteins requires an approval for environmental release, as well as approvals for use as feed and food. Environmental factors such as potential impacts on non-target species are considered. Insect resistance management (IRM) may be imposed as a condition for environmental release of Bt crops to delay the development of resistance in the target insect. Bt potato and European corn borer-resistant Bt corn have been released with mandatory IRM. The CFIA imposes an IRM plan consisting of appropriate refugia, education of farmers and seed dealers, and monitoring and mitigation. Industry, regulators, government extension staff and public researchers provide expert advice on IRM.     

Use of crops for in situ phytoremediation of polluted soils following a toxic flood from a mine spill

Following a toxic flood from a mine spill that affected over 45 km² in Southern Spain, experiments were conducted in 1999 to test the feasibility of using crops for phytoremediation of the area, after the mechanical removal of the mud. Two cereals, barley and triticale, and two Brassicaspp., rapeseed and ethiopian mustard, were planted in three contaminated plots, 50 × 100 m each, and in a control plot outside the affected area. Soil and plant contents of As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Tl and Zn were measured and bioaccumulation coefficients (BC) were calculated at maturity. The four crops tested accumulated Cd and Zn in the above-ground biomass only in the plot on acid soil. Both species of Brassica accumulated Tl (average BC of 3.6 and 1.4 for rapeseed and mustard, respectively, in contaminated plots). None of the four crop plants accumulated As, Cu and Pb under the experimental conditions. Maximum plant uptake values from soil were 5.4 mg m^–2 of As, 0.54 mg m^–2 of Cd, 9.7 mg m^–2 of Cu, 7.0 mg m^–2 of Pb, 3.4 mg m^–2 of Tl, and 260 mg m^–2 of Zn. Total crop uptake gave estimates for successful phytoremediation of at least five decades, casting doubts on the feasibility of using these crops for decontamination of the area. Nevertheless, cereal grains had mineral contents below toxicity levels for livestock, therefore it might be possible to use these crops for livestock feed while reducing deep percolation and gradually removing metals from polluted soils.     

Gap-phase regeneration in a tropical montane forest: the effects of gap structure and bamboo species

To study the influence of gap structure and bamboo species on the regrowth of montane Atlantic forest, colonization by plants was characterized in 30 treefall gaps (30.3–500.5 m²). The study was conducted at Santa Virgínia (45°30 W, 23°17 S), a 4970-ha reserve of Atlantic montane forest in southeastern Brazil. Area covered by bamboos ranged from 0% to 100% of gap area. Average height of surrounding canopies ranged from 12 to 30 m. As gap are covered by bamboo and average height of surrounding canopies increased, both density and richness of pioneer woody species decreased. Density and richness of shade-tolerant species were negatively influenced by gap area. Low-light-demanding species of Miconia, Leandra and Rapanea accounted for the majority of both pioneer species and individuals sampled, whereas high-light demanding pioneers of Cecropia, Alchornea and Tibouchina were poorly represented. We suggest that in the Atlantic montane forest bamboo species compete for gaps, excluding other light-demanding pioneers. This results in an overall reduction of pioneer species richness in the Atlantic forest.     

Propagation of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. through in vitro shoot proliferation from cotyledonary nodes

A protocol is presented for micropropagation of an economically important timber-yielding forest tree, Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (Sissoo). Multiple shoots were induced from cotyledonary nodes derived from 1-week-old axenic seedlings on Murashige and Skoog's medium containing either N ⁶-benzyladenine (BA), kinetin (Kn), isopentenyladenine (2iP) or thidiazuron (TDZ), with BA being the most effective growth regulator. High-frequency shoot proliferation (99%) and maximum number of shoots per explant (7.9 shoots) were recorded with BA at an optimum level of 8.9 μM. Concentrations of all cytokinins tested above the optimum level markedly reduced the frequency of shoot proliferation. A proliferating shoot culture was established by repeatedly subculturing the original cotyledonary node on shoot multiplication medium after each harvest of the newly formed shoots. Primary shoots were multiplied as nodal explants, and from each stem node 2 or 3 shoots developed. Thus, 60–70 shoots were obtained in 3 months from a single cotyledonary node. About 91% of the shoots developed roots following transfer to half-strength MS medium containing a combination of 5.7 μM indole-3-acetic acid, 4.9 μM indole-3-butyric acid and 5.3 μM indole-3-propionic acid. Eighty percent of the plantlets were successfully acclimatized and established in soil. Received: 1 October 1997 / Revision received: 31 March 1998 / Accepted: 7 April 1998     

An approach for post‐market monitoring of potential environmental effects of Bt‐maize expressing Cry1Ab on natural enemies

Post‐market monitoring (PMM) consistent with Swiss and European Union legislation should ensure the detection and prevention of adverse effects on the environment possibly deriving from commercial cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops. Insect‐resistant GM crops (such as Bt‐maize) raise particular questions regarding disturbances of biological control functions provided by beneficial insects such as predators and parasitoids (so‐called natural enemies). Consensus among regulators, scientists and the agricultural biotech industry on appropriate PMM plans allowing the detection and possibly prevention of such adverse effects is still lacking. The aims of this study were to identify the necessity for PMM of Bt‐maize expressing Cry1Ab on natural enemies and to develop an appropriate PMM plan. The approach chosen consisted in determining what type of monitoring is most appropriate to address potential effects of Bt‐maize on natural enemies during commercial cultivation. This included identifying whether there remain substantial scientific uncertainties that would support case‐specific monitoring. Existing pre‐market risk assessment data indicate that Bt‐maize (Cry1Ab) comprises a negligible risk for disturbances in biological control functions of natural enemies. As a consequence, a faunistic monitoring of specific groups of natural enemies is not considered an appropriate approach to detect failures in biological control functions. Alternatively, an approach is proposed that consists in indirectly analysing biological control functions by surveying outbreaks of maize herbivores. Unusual herbivore outbreaks could indicate failures in biological control functions of natural enemies. Data could be collected via questionnaires addressed to farmers growing Bt‐maize. Significant correlations between unusual occurrences of specific maize herbivores and the cultivation of Bt‐maize would subsequently need specific studies to determine possible causalities in more detail. The here proposed approach has the advantage of covering different natural enemy groups. It represents a cost‐effective strategy to obtain scientifically sound data as a basis for regulatory decision‐making.     

Biomass,sugar, and bioethanol potential of sweet corn

Sweet corn is a widely distributed crop that generates agricultural waste without significant commercial value. In this study, we show that sweet corn varieties produce large amounts of residual biomass (10 t ha^?1) with high content of soluble sugars (25% of dry matter) in a short growing season (3 months). The potential ethanol production from structural and soluble sugars extracted from sweet corn stover reached up to 4400 l ha^?1 in the most productive hybrids, 33% of which (1500 l ha^?1) were obtained by direct fermentation of free sugars. We found wide genetic variation for biomass yield and soluble sugars content suggesting that those traits can be included as complementary traits in sweet corn breeding programs. Dual‐purpose sweet corn hybrids can have an added value for the farmers contributing to energy generation without affecting food supply or the environment.     

A reassessment of global bioenergy potential in 2050

Many climate change mitigation strategies rely on strong projected growth in biomass energy, supported by literature estimating high future bioenergy potential. However, expectations to 2050 are highly divergent. Examining the most widely cited studies finds that some assumptions in these models are inconsistent with the best available evidence. By identifying literature‐supported, up‐to‐date assumptions for parameters including crop yields, land availability, and costs, we revise upper‐end estimates of potential biomass availability from dedicated energy crops. Even allowing for the conversion of virtually all ‘unused’ grassland and savannah, we find that the maximum plausible limit to sustainable energy crop production in 2050 would be 40–110 EJ yr^?1. Combined with forestry, crop residues, and wastes, the maximum limit to long‐term total biomass availability is 60–120 EJ yr^?1 in primary energy. After accounting for current trends in bioenergy allocation and conversion losses, we estimate maximum potentials of 10–20 EJ yr^?1 of biofuel, 20–40 EJ yr^?1 of electricity, and 10–30 EJ yr^?1 of heating in 2050. These findings suggest that many technical projections and aspirational goals for future bioenergy use could be difficult or impossible to achieve sustainably.     

Extrapolating non-target risk of Bt crops from laboratory to field

The tiered approach to assessing ecological risk of insect-resistant transgenic crops assumes that lower tier laboratory studies, which expose surrogate non-target organisms to high doses of insecticidal proteins, can detect harmful effects that might be manifested in the field. To test this assumption, we performed meta-analyses comparing results for non-target invertebrates exposed to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry proteins in laboratory studies with results derived from independent field studies examining effects on the abundance of non-target invertebrates. For Lepidopteran-active Cry proteins, laboratory studies correctly predicted the reduced field abundance of non-target Lepidoptera. However, laboratory studies incorporating tri-trophic interactions of Bt plants, herbivores and parasitoids were better correlated with the decreased field abundance of parasitoids than were direct-exposure assays. For predators, laboratory tri-trophic studies predicted reduced abundances that were not realized in field studies and thus overestimated ecological risk. Exposure to Coleopteran-active Cry proteins did not significantly reduce the laboratory survival or field abundance of any functional group examined. Our findings support the assumption that laboratory studies of transgenic insecticidal crops show effects that are either consistent with, or more conservative than, those found in field studies, with the important caveat that laboratory studies should explore all ecologically relevant routes of exposure.     

陕西木本种子植物区系属的热带地理成分研究

对陕西境内木本种子植物区系属一级的热带地理成分进行了研究,全省木本种子植物区系中的热带地理成分共包括泛热带成分、热带亚洲和热带美洲间断成分、旧世界热带成分、热带亚洲至热带大洋洲成分、热带亚洲至热带非洲成分及热带亚洲成分6种类型,共95属,归属于53科。在各种热带地理成分中,陕西木本植物区系与泛热带成分联系最为密切,各类热带地理成分主要分布于陕西秦岭以南地区。从科、属、种的分布区格局以及木本热带区系成分的群落学作用等方面分析,陕西植物区系具有明显的温带性质,同时,区系也呈现一定的热带—温带过渡性特点。     

A situation in which a local nontoxic refuge promotes pest resistance to toxic crops

In order to delay the development of pest resistance to genetically engineered insecticidal crop varieties, it is current practice to grow "refugees" of non-toxic plants close to insecticidal crops. We model such a toxic/nontoxic crop complex as an open system with a small stream of toxin-susceptible immigrants. We find that, for intermediate values of the dominance of a pest gene for resistance to the toxin, the local refuge can spoil the benefit that is provided by the immigrant stream. We provide formulas for some important boundaries in parameter space.