“Strictly for the Birds”: Science, the Military and the Smithsonian's Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program, 1963–1970

Between 1963 and 1970, the Smithsonian Institution held a grant from the US Army to observe migratory patterns of pelagic birds in the Central Pacific. For six years, the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program (POBSP) collected a vast amount of data from a quarter of the globe little known to science, and difficult for civilians to access. Its reports were (and remain) of great value to science. In 1969, however, the Program became embroiled in controversy. Some alleged that the Smithsonian, by accepting the military's coin, had violated its own rules governing the receipt of government funds and the publication of research. Recent investigations have pointed to a number of unexplained relationships between the POBSP and the Army, during a period of intense activity in chemical and biological weapons testing. The controversy marked a watershed in Smithsonian-military relations. As yet, its history is incomplete. What is known, however, suggests that the POBSP involved a highly problematic mésalliance between science and secrecy during the height of the Cold War. Its gradual unfolding prompts questions of contemporary relevance that await contemporary answers. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Dysbiosis in gastrointestinal pathophysiology: Role of the gut microbiome in Gulf War Illness

Gulf War Illness (GWI) has been reported in 25%–35% of veterans returned from the Gulf war. Symptoms of GWI are varied and include both neurological and gastrointestinal symptoms as well as chronic fatigue. Development of GWI has been associated with chemical exposure particularly with exposure to pyridostigmine bromide (PB) and permethrin. Recent studies have found that the pathology of GWI is connected to changes in the gut microbiota, that is the gut dysbiosis. In studies using animal models, the exposure to PB and permethrin resulted in similar changes in the gut microbiome as these found in GW veterans with GWI. Studies using animal models have also shown that phytochemicals like curcumin are beneficial in reducing the symptoms and that the extracellular vesicles (EV) released from gut bacteria and from the intestinal epithelium can both promote diseases and suppress diseases through the intercellular communication mechanisms. The intestinal epithelium cells produce EVs and these EVs of intestinal epithelium origin are found to suppress inflammatory bowel disease severity, suggesting the benefits of utilizing EV in treatments. On the contrary, EV from the plasma of septic mice enhanced the level of proinflammatory cytokines in vitro and neutrophils and macrophages in vivo, suggesting differences in the EV depending on the types of cells they were originated and/or influences of environmental changes. These studies suggest that targeting the EV that specifically have positive influences may become a new therapeutic strategy in the treatment of veterans with GWI.     

Selective mortality and fertility and long run health effects of prenatal wartime exposure

Many previous studies have shown that prenatal exposure to adverse historical circumstances negatively affects long-run health. Most women who are pregnant during wars experience clearly adverse circumstances that are however not as harsh as the typically studied extreme episodes such as famines, combat and wide-scale destruction. We show that prenatal exposure to World War II (WWII) in five Western European countries did not lead to a population-wide poorer health among the elderly. We even find indications of a better than expected health. This is likely due to selective fertility and mortality. We attempt to quantify these selection effects and show that when taking them into account, the initially positively estimated health effects on almost all outcomes are substantially attenuated. Selective mortality and fertility likely occur in similar directions for many historical episodes of adversity. Our results therefore suggest that a part of the previous research on such exposures likely under estimated the true sizes of the long-run effects.     

Ecological analysis and environmental niche modelling of Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo: A conservation approach for critically endangered medicinal orchid

The natural populations of Dactylorhiza hatagirea have been greatly affected due to incessant exploitation. As such, studies on its population attributes together with habitat suitability and environmental factors affecting its distribution are needed to be undertaken for its conservation in nature. Present study aimed at accessing an impact of anthropogenic pressure on population structure and locate suitable habitats for the conservation of this critically endangered orchid. Considerable changes in the phytosociological attributes were observed on account of the changing magnitude and extent of anthropogenic threat in their natural abode. The distribution pattern of species indicated that more than 90% of the populations exhibit substantially aggregated spatial distribution. Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) distribution modelling algorithm was used to predict suitable habitat and potential area for its cultivation and reintroduction. Twenty-seven occurrence records, nineteen bioclimatic variables, altitude, and slope were used. MaxEnt map output gave the habitat suitability for this species and predicted its distribution in the North-Western Himalayas of India for approximately 616 km². Jackknifing indicated that maximum temperature of warmest month, annual mean temperature, mean temperature of the driest quarter, and mean temperature of the wettest quarter were the governing factors for its distribution and hence, presented a higher gain with respect to other variables. According to permutation importance, precipitation seasonality and mean temperature of wettest quarter shows the prominent impact on the habitat distribution. Results of AUC (area under curve) were statistically significant (0.940) and the line of predicted omission falls very close to an omission on training samples, validating a better run of the model. Response curves revealed a probable increase in the occurrence of D. hatagirea with an increase in mean temperature of the wettest quarter and maximum temperature of the warmest month contributed more than 50% to predicted habitat suitability. Direct field observations concurrent with predicted habitat suitability and google-earth images represent greater model thresholds for successful inception of the species. Together, the study proposes that the species can be conserved in or near its present-day natural habitats and is equally effective in determining the possible habitats for its cultivation and reintroduction.     

Soldier Tracks in a First World War Fort (Valmorbiawerk,Trento, Italy)

A set of partial or complete boot tracks is described from the floor of a tunnel in a First World War fort in the Trentino Alto Adige region. The tracks belong to the right and left boots of the same person. The deepest imprints have been left by the heels, which were reinforced by rectangular and square-shaped hobnails. From studying all the tracks, it has been possible to reconstruct the complete hobnail set of both boots and compare them with coeval boots used by soldiers. Depending on the nationality and branch of the armed services, the nails had different shapes and arrangements. The layout and the shape of the tracks perfectly match the mountain footwear used by the Austro-Hungarian army. The succession of events during the building of the Valmorbiawerk indicates that the tracks could have been imprinted between spring 1914 and May 1915.     

The Paleontological Institute during World War II: Academician A.A. Borissiak and the Moscow Group

This paper is one of the series of narratives about the Paleontological Institute during the World War II. Correspondence between A.A. Borissiak, who was in evacuation in the city of Frunze, and his colleagues left in charge of the institute in Moscow, is presented, concerning the extremely difficult task of protecting the collections.