Growth and water relations of Liquidambar styraciflua L. in an urban park and plaza

Summary Growth and water relations of 10-year-old sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) street trees were studied in sites with low and high potential evapotranspiration to determine how these differences are integrated by growth and water relations over time. The trees were located in the parking strip between the curb and sidewalk at a partially vegetated urban park and an urban plaza in Seattle, Washington. Crown size, and seasonal and diurnal stomatal conductance and water potential, as well as diurnal air temperature and humidity, were measured over 2 growing seasons. Yearly trunk growth since transplanting was measured from increment cores. Vapor pressure deficits and air temperatures averaged 18% greater at the plaza, but whole-tree water loss appeared to be much lower than the park trees due to more restricted stomatal conductance and crown size. In addition, yearly diameter increment declined progressively once the plaza trees were established in the existing soil several years after transplanting. Lower water potential in the plaza trees indicated greater internal moisture deficits than the park trees, and tissue analysis revealed lower nutritional status, particularly nitrogen. A manipulative study of water and fertilizer to several additional plaza trees showed an interaction between water and nutrient deficiencies in the coarse and shallow soil that apparently limited growth. Furthermore, soil limitations probably interacted with paved surface conditions over time by reducing nutrient recycling from leaf litter, and generating higher vapor pressure deficits that would contribute to prolonged stomatal closure. Restricted growth and water relations status of the plaza trees represented an equilibrium between chronic high-resource demand above ground and limited below ground.     

Applications of a universal thermal index: physiological equivalent temperature

The physiological equivalent temperature, PET, is a thermal index derived from the human energy balance. It is well suited to the evaluation of the thermal component of different climates. As well as having a detailed physiological basis, PET is preferable to other thermal indexes like the predicted mean vote because of its unit (°C), which makes results more comprehensible to urban or regional planners, for example, who are not so familiar with modern human-biometeorological terminology. PET results can be presented graphically or as bioclimatic maps. Graphs mostly display the temporal behaviour of PET, whereas spatial distribution is specified in bioclimatic maps. In this article, some applications of PET are discussed. They relate to the evaluation of the urban heat island in cities in both temperate climates and warm climates at high altitude. The thermal component of the microclimate in the trunk space of a deciduous forest is also evaluated by PET. As an example of the spatial distribution of PET, a bioclimatic map for Greece in July (Mediterranean climate) is presented. Received: 7 April 1999 / Accepted: 26 May 1999     

关中平原城市群扩张对生态用地的多尺度影响

城市扩张与生态空间保护的矛盾是新型城镇化和国土空间规划过程中急需解决的问题之一。作为黄河流域生态保护与高质量发展的核心区域，关中平原城市群面临更加严峻的生态和资源胁迫。但相关研究主要对研究区整体的生态环境变化进行测度，少有研究分析城市群发展对生态用地的多尺度影响，且忽略了城市群中土地变化最剧烈，生态受胁迫最严重的城市边缘区。因此，基于土地利用数据，结合土地利用转移矩阵、景观指数、估算城市扩张间接影响的生态用地面积等方法，研究从城市群、重点城市和主要城市边缘区3个尺度分析1990-2018年城镇扩张对生态用地的直接和间接影响。结果表明：（1）关中平原城市群土地利用类型以半生态用地（耕地）为主，面积占比超过40%。而城市边缘区主要以半生态用地和建设用地为主。1990-2018年城市群建设用地面积比例由3.67%增长至5.93%，耕地面积共计减少3032.11 km²，自然生态用地的面积增加628.03 km²。受耕地占补、退耕还林等多重政策的影响，半生态用地和自然生态用地的变化呈现为"拉锯式"发展特征。（2）城市扩张对半生态用地的直接影响大于对自然生态用地的直接影响，各尺度土地利用转移变化大同小异，新增建设用地的主要来源均为耕地，其中城市边缘区的耕地受城镇扩张的挤占最为突出。（3）城市扩张对自然生态用地的间接影响大于直接影响，且不同城市建设用地对自然生态用地的间接影响因耕地补偿机制的不同而有所差异。因此，对关中平原城市群实施"一刀切"的耕地补偿政策实际上并不合理，应当因地制宜，考虑地区土地资源条件，适当调整发展和约束政策，更有利于城市群的可持续发展。     

Vegetation cover change in growing urban agglomerations in Chile

Cities in Latin America expose high rates of urbanization and poorly controlled processes of creation of new urban peripheries. In this study we evaluated the changes in vegetation cover as a proxy of the success of urban planning in the creation or conservation of elements able to provide ecosystem services to citizens and therefore strengthening urban sustainability. Three urban agglomerations in Chile located in different climates were analysed. Four indicators were processed to understand the changes and correlations between vegetation and urban dynamics: normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), vegetation cover, normalized difference built-up index (NDBI) and built-up area. The indicators were calculated for a period over 20 years covering two parts of the city as an urban development: the urban core and the new peripheries. An overall loss of vegetation was observed in all cities has a consequence of urban expansion despite their geographical location. Moreover, the greatest losses were in new peripheries. Santiago broke this pattern of change. First its urban core showed a small increase in indicators for vegetation cover despite the increase in indicators for urban dynamics. Secondly, despite their peripheries experiencing a decrease in vegetation cover, a more detailed analysis found differences on the northern and eastern peripheries where increases of vegetation cover were observed, and other new peripheries where vegetation loss was massive. Urban planning needs to play a role not only to facilitate the creation of green spaces or other public spaces able to host vegetation, but also to form an urban structure supported by regulations that facilitate the planting and maintenance of vegetation in private spaces.     

The importance of urban reserves for conserving beetle communities: a case study from New Zealand

Urban reserves provide a major opportunity for conservation of indigenous biodiversity in the heavily urbanised landscape of Waitakere City (Auckland), New Zealand. However, there is little documented information on what indigenous fauna survives in these reserves. Beetle (Coleoptera) communities associated with two small, isolated urban reserves and two sites in a larger forest area within the Waitakere Ranges were sampled using pitfall traps and analysed. A total of 887 beetles, from 23 families and 89 recognisable taxonomic units were caught. The urban reserves had a marked reduction in species richness and abundance of beetles compared with the sites within the larger forest areas. Various environmental factors influencing the distribution of beetles across the sites were investigated. The most important factors were size of fragment, local forest cover and soil moisture. Common species (>5 specimens in the total dataset) found in the Waitakere Ranges and small urban reserves, were either endemic or indigenous to New Zealand. Therefore, even though these reserves may be isolated from a larger, more continuous forest tract, they have considerable potential as reservoirs of beetle diversity in highly modified landscapes and the contribution of urban reserves to the local sustainability of beetle assemblages emphasises the importance of maintaining green areas in and around cities.     

20世纪下半叶上海城市景观镶嵌结构演变的数量特征与分形结构模型研究

以上海中心城区为空间范围,以RS和GIS为技术手段,运用多样指数、优势度、破碎度、分离度等指标,研究20世纪下半叶以来上海城市景观镶嵌结构及其演变的数量特征;运用分形理论建立各种景观形态的分形结构模型,以分维数为依据分析各种景观形态的复杂性;基于GIS的空间分析功能,探讨影响景观格局及其演变的主要因素。研究结果表明:(1)上海城市景观的空间扩展,在空间上和时间都是不均匀;(2)随着时间的推移,景观多样性和破碎度变大。优势度变小;(3)住宅、工矿和其它城市景观的分离度明显地呈减小趋势,农田和村镇的分离度呈增大趋势,道路和河流水域的分离度变化幅度不大;(4)各种景观斑块形态的复杂性程度(分维数的平均值)排序为:道路>河流水域>农田>住宅>村镇>工矿>在建景观>其它城市景观;(5)从各种景观形态的演变过程来看,住宅斑块形态逐渐趋于复杂化,斑其块形态的分维数呈缓慢地增大趋势;工矿、道路、其它城市景观、农田、村镇等五种景观斑块形态的变化,经历了由简单到复杂,再到简单的变化过程,其分维数在1947-1988年期间呈增大趋势,1988年时增至最大,随后开始逐渐减小;(6)影响上海城市景观格局及其演变的因素主要包括河流廊道、原有基础、交通廊道、经济发展、规划控制等几个方面。     

合肥市区城市森林景观格局分析

运用3S技术在分析合肥景观特点的基础上,研究了合肥市区17．6km^2范围内的城市森林景观特点及与其它景观单元间关系。结果表明,主要景观要素分为建筑与硬质铺装表面、城市森林斑块、一般绿地、道路、水面五大类景观背景为建筑及铺装表面,占总面积的73．13％;道路为典型的廊道景观,约占6．89％;研究区城市森林斑块共408块,计161．16hm^2,占总面积的9．8％,平均面积0．396hm^2、最大面积12hm^2,斑块形状复杂、近圆度小,其中48％的班块属于面积<500m^2的小班块,>1hm^2的城市森林班块只占8．6％;水面斑块147块,计149．93hm^2,占总面积的8．54％,平均面积1．02hm^2,最大面积16hm^2;一般绿地斑块255块,计39．74hm^2,占2．26％,最大面积3．86hm^2,平均面积0．1558hm^2．Shanlnon-Weiner景观多样性指数和均匀度均偏低,分别为0．9284和0．5768。另外,城市森林与一般绿地两类景观要素的总优势度达0．39,由于这两类景观斑块的尺度变化范围大,比较破碎,小尺度的斑块所占比例高,又主要集中在西区,分布不均匀,故对环境的影响作用受到限制,文中引用自然森林的内部生境概念,确定合肥城市森林斑块出现内部环境的l临界面积为9800m^2,研究区拥有城市森林的内部生境总面积为31．69hm^2,仅为城市森林面积的19．7％,不利于对物种提供更多的生境,提出应用内部生境的大小来划分城市森林斑块,建立城市森林小班块-中斑块-大斑块-特大斑块的尺度等级体系,据此提出,研究区各尺度的城市森林斑块面积比为2：2：2：3。同时提出合肥东北部应增加城市森林面积,尽可能建设1．5～3．0hm^2的片状城市森林。     

沈阳市城市森林结构与效益分析

采用样方调查方法对沈阳市243km^2范围的树木进行每木实地调查,在地理信息系统应用软件Arc View3．2平台上建立了基于CITYgreen模型的城市森林信息管理系统,应用该信息系统分析了沈阳市土地利用及树木分布的格局、树种构成、树木密度、树高、胸径、健康状况等反映城市森林结构特征的指标结果表明,2001年沈阳市有树136种,1 914 500株树木,森林覆盖率为9．77％,25种主要树木占树木总数的84．78％,胸径小于0．25m(一类胸径)和大于0．5m(三类胸径)的树木占82．8％;幼龄树27％、中龄树58％、老龄树15％;84％的树木健康状况为中等以上,城市森林信息管理系统计算表明,沈阳市城市森林每年生态效益折合经济价值为2．65千万美元。     

基于土地利用变化的杭州市绿地生态服务价值CITYgreen模型评价

在CITYgreen模型支持下,以1994年与2004年的杭州市Landset TM数据提取的土地利用信息与绿地分布数据为基础,对杭州市人工绿地、人工林地与天然林地的生态服务价值进行估算和对比分析,研究杭州市土地利用变化和经济发展状况对其的影响.结果表明,10年间,杭州市绿地虽然减少了20.4%,但绿地生态服务价值增加了1.68×10⁹元,绿地生态服务价值与杭州市GDP年度增长率分别为111.92%和5.32%,适宜的土地利用调整有效地协调了城市经济发展与城市生态功能的关系,实现了土地利用的生态服务高效能.     

沈阳城市森林主要树种物候对气候变暖的响应

采用统计和线性回归方法,探讨了近40年来沈阳城市森林主要树种物候对气候变暖的响应.结果表明,沈阳城市森林树木休眠期长短与冬季气温密切相关,适宜的寒冷条件有利于解除树木休眠期;树木萌动期早晚与冬季和早春气温高低呈显著的负相关关系,冬春季气温越高,芽萌动越提前.树木爆芽后15 d左右开始展叶,展叶早晚主要受展叶前的春季气温高低的影响,但与冬季气温没有相关关系.始花前2～8旬,特别是2～4旬气温对始花期影响最显著,春季气温升高始花期提前. 树木芽萌动期、展叶始期与寒冷指数（CI）呈显著正相关关系,而开花始期与CI没有相关关系.沈阳城市森林树木对气候变暖的响应,主要表现在年均温升高1 ℃,芽萌动期提前9 d,展叶始期提前10 d,开花始期提前5 d.