Positive Selection during Niche Adaptation Results in Large-Scale and Irreversible Rearrangement of Chromosomal Gene Order in Bacteria

Analysis of bacterial genomes shows that, whereas diverse species share many genes in common, their linear order on the chromosome is often not conserved. Whereas rearrangements in gene order could occur by genetic drift, an alternative hypothesis is rearrangement driven by positive selection during niche adaptation (SNAP). Here, we provide the first experimental support for the SNAP hypothesis. We evolved Salmonella to adapt to growth on malate as the sole carbon source and followed the evolutionary trajectories. The initial adaptation to growth in the new environment involved the duplication of 1.66 Mb, corresponding to one-third of the Salmonella chromosome. This duplication is selected to increase the copy number of a single gene, dctA, involved in the uptake of malate. Continuing selection led to the rapid loss or mutation of duplicate genes from either copy of the duplicated region. After 2000 generations, only 31% of the originally duplicated genes remained intact and the gene order within the Salmonella chromosome has been significantly and irreversibly altered. These results experientially validate predictions made by the SNAP hypothesis and show that SNAP can be a strong driving force for rearrangements in chromosomal gene order.     

鹌鹑源鼠伤寒沙门氏菌的分离鉴定与耐药性分析

【背景】在鹌鹑养殖过程中,抗菌药物和消毒剂的不规范使用加剧了耐药菌株在动物、场所和食品之间的相互传播,因此,掌握致病菌株在养殖动物中的耐药状况至关重要。【目的】检测北京周边地区鹌鹑蛋源致病菌株的耐药特征和耐药基因的流行情况。【方法】在天津市武清区部分鹌鹑养殖场采集鹌鹑泄殖腔粪便、鹌鹑蛋表、养殖环境和鹌鹑饮水的样品,通过细菌分离培养、菌落形态观察、染色镜检、生化鉴定、血清分型、沙门氏菌inv A基因序列测定等方法对分离菌株进行鉴定。同时进行小鼠攻毒试验,测定小鼠半数致死量(median lethal dose, LD50)。再通过药敏试验和PCR方法对分离菌的耐药表型、耐药基因及毒力基因进行检测。【结果】分离菌株菌落颜色、镜检形态和生化试验结果符合沙门氏菌特性,沙门氏菌inv A基因序列测定与鼠伤寒沙门氏菌参考株相似度为99.44%,鉴定为鼠伤寒沙门氏菌,血清型为1,4,[5],[12]:i:l,2。该菌株对小鼠有致病作用,小鼠LD50为2.10×107 CFU/mL;药敏试验结果显示该菌株对氨苄西林、阿莫西林/克拉维酸、头孢噻呋、链霉素、磺胺甲啞唑、磺胺异啞唑、诺氟沙星、环丙沙星表现耐...     

Comparative susceptibility of planktonic and 3‐day‐old Salmonella Typhimurium biofilms to disinfectants

Aims: To compare the susceptibility of a 3‐day‐old biofilm and planktonic Salmonella to disinfectants at different exposure times. We hypothesize that Salmonella biofilms are more resilient to disinfectants compared to planktonic Salmonella. Methods and Results: The susceptibility of planktonic cells to disinfectants was tested by a modified version of the Council of Europe suspension test EN 1276. Salmonella biofilms were formed using the Calgary Biofilm Device. Results show that 3‐day‐old Salmonella biofilms are less susceptible to the disinfectants benzalkonium chloride, chlorhexidine gluconate, citric acid, quaternary ammonium compounds, sodium hypochlorite (SH) and ethanol, compared to planktonic Salmonella. Surprisingly, the results also demonstrate that low concentrations of SH were more effective against a 3‐day‐old biofilm compared to high concentrations of SH. Conclusions: While all the disinfectants evaluated were able to reduce biofilm‐associated cells at concentrations and contact times sufficient to eliminate planktonic cells, there were still sufficient viable cells remaining in the biofilm to cause further contamination and potential infection. Significance and Impact of the Study: Protocols for the use of chemical disinfectants need to include biofilm susceptibility testing. There is a requirement for an effective and standardized tool for determining the susceptibility of biofilms to disinfectants.     

Mutations in the lipid A deacylase PagL which release the enzyme from its latency affect the ability of PagL to interact with lipopolysaccharide in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium

PagL, a lipid A deacylase, is unique in that it is latent in the outer membrane of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Several point mutations in the extracellular loops of PagL, which do not affect its enzymatic activity, release it from this latency. Precipitation analysis revealed that latent wild-type PagL associated with lipopolysaccharide, but non-latent PagL mutants did not. In contrast, non-latent PagL mutants preferentially associated with some membrane proteins. Precipitation analysis using inactive PagL mutants demonstrated that membrane lipid A deacylation did not affect association. These results indicate that mutations in the lipid A deacylase PagL which relieve the enzyme from its latency affect the ability of PagL to interact with lipopolysaccharide.     

Surface decontamination of beef inoculated with Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 or Escherichia coli O157:H7 using dry air in a novel heat treatment apparatus

AIMS: To determine the effectiveness of a novel dry air decontamination apparatus in the deactivation of Salmonella serotype Typhimurium DT104 or Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef surfaces. METHODS AND RESULTS: A laboratory scale dry air decontamination apparatus, capable of producing repeatable and known heating time-temperature cycles on food surfaces was used in decontamination trials. Beef samples were surface inoculated with 7-8 log10CFU cm(-2) of S. Typhimurium DT104 or E. coli O157:H7 and heated at 60, 75, 90 and 100 degrees C using fast and slow heating rates and subsequently held at these temperatures for up to 600 s. A substantial reduction in pathogen numbers was achieved at higher temperatures (90 and 100 degrees C, 4.18-6.06 log10CFU cm(-2)) using both heating rates, but cell survival at these temperatures was also observed. At the lower temperatures, deactivation was small at 60 degrees C in particular it was less than one log unit after 3 min heating. No significant differences were observed when total reductions in pathogen counts were compared for all the temperature/heat up time combinations tested. During slow heating at 90 degrees C, and both heating rates at 100 degrees C, the pattern of deactivation of S. Typhimurium DT104 or E. coli O157:H7 was triphasic. CONCLUSIONS: This study has shown that heating meat surfaces with dry air can achieve substantial reductions in S. Typhimurium DT104 or E. coli O157:H7. As surface decontamination of beef surfaces with dry air had a negative effect on beef colour and appearance, such a decontamination apparatus would be unsuitable for producing meat for retail sale but it could be used to produce safer meat for use in the catering trade. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study provides researchers and food processors with data on the dynamic changes in S. Typhimurium DT104 and E. coli O157:H7 counts on intact beef surfaces during heating with dry air under realistic (time-varying) temperature conditions.     

In vitro effect of subinhibitory concentrations of antibiotics on biofilm formation by clinical strains of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium isolated in Slovakia

Aims: In this study, we examined the biofilm formation of 75 Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (Salm. Typhimurium) human clinical isolates and the effect of subinhibitory concentrations (sub-MICs) of gentamicin, ciprofloxacin and cefotaxime on biofilm formation and exopolysaccharides (EPS) production. Methods and Results: Quantification of biofilm formation and EPS production were carried out using a modified microtitre plate assay and spectrophotometric method, respectively. The results indicate that 38 isolates (50·7%), which are predominantly of DT104 phage type, presented as the strong biofilm producers in vitro on plastic surface. When strains with the highest biofilm-forming capacity were grown in the presence of sub-MICs of gentamicin and ciprofloxacin, the inhibition of biofilm formation and EPS production was observed. In contrast, cefotaxime at 1/2 MIC (0·039 μg ml⁻¹) was able to significantly induce the production of biofilm as well as EPS in three isolates with nontypable and DT104 phage type, respectively. Conclusions: These results clearly indicate that all the three antibiotics tested are able to interfere with biofilm formation and EPS production by Salm. Typhimurium isolates. Significance and Impact of the Study: The current study demonstrated that cefotaxime at sub-MIC can be beneficial for the behaviour of pathogen Salm. Typhimurium in vitro.     

Diversity in biofilm formation and production of curli fimbriae and cellulose of Salmonella Typhimurium strains of different origin in high and low nutrient medium

The biofilm forming behavior of 51 Salmonella Typhimurium strains was determined in Tryptone Soya Broth (TSB) and 20 times diluted TSB (1/20TSB) at 25°C and 37°C. The results indicated that biofilm forming behavior is influenced by environmental conditions and associated with the origin of the strains. Clinical, outbreak-associated and retail product isolates showed dense biofilm formation in both media at 25°C, and in TSB also at 37°C. However, industrial isolates only showed dense biofilm formation in 1/20TSB at 25°C. By enumeration of biofilm cells, LIVE/DEAD staining and SEM analysis of biofilms it was found that the ratio of cells and extracellular matrix is affected by environmental conditions. Indeed, the genes involved in curli fimbriae and cellulose production are highly induced during biofilm formation at 25°C in 1/20TSB. This indicates that these are important matrix components during biofilm formation in 1/20TSB at 25°C and that other factors contribute to biofilm formation of clinical, outbreak-associated and retail product isolates at 37°C and/or nutrient-rich conditions.     

WQ-3810 exerts high inhibitory effect on quinolone-resistant DNA gyrase of Salmonella Typhimurium

ABSTRACT

The inhibitory effect of WQ-3810 on DNA gyrase was assayed to evaluate the potential of WQ-3810 as a candidate drug for the treatment of quinolone resistant Salmonella Typhymurium infection. The inhibitory effect of WQ-3810, ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid was compared by accessing the drug concentration that halves the enzyme activity (IC₅₀) of purified S. Typhimurium wildtype and mutant DNA gyrase with amino acid substitution at position 83 or/and 87 in subunit A (GyrA) causing quinolone resistance. As a result, WQ-3810 reduced the enzyme activity of both wildtype and mutant DNA gyrase at a lower concentration than ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid. Remarkably, WQ-3810 showed a higher inhibitory effect on DNA gyrase with amino acid substitutions at position 87 than with that at position 83 in GyrA. This study revealed that WQ-3810 could be an effective therapeutic agent, especially against quinolone resistant Salmonella enterica having amino acid substitution at position 87.     

High-throughput Assay to Phenotype Salmonella enterica Typhimurium Association,Invasion, and Replication in Macrophages

Salmonella species are zoonotic pathogens and leading causes of food borne illnesses in humans and livestock¹. Understanding the mechanisms underlying Salmonella-host interactions are important to elucidate the molecular pathogenesis of Salmonella infection. The Gentamicin protection assay to phenotype Salmonella association, invasion and replication in phagocytic cells was adapted to allow high-throughput screening to define the roles of deletion mutants of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium in host interactions using RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. Under this protocol, the variance in measurements is significantly reduced compared to the standard protocol, because wild-type and multiple mutant strains can be tested in the same culture dish and at the same time. The use of multichannel pipettes increases the throughput and enhances precision. Furthermore, concerns related to using less host cells per well in 96-well culture dish were addressed. Here, the protocol of the modified in vitro Salmonella invasion assay using phagocytic cells was successfully employed to phenotype 38 individual Salmonella deletion mutants for association, invasion and intracellular replication. The in vitro phenotypes are presented, some of which were subsequently confirmed to have in vivo phenotypes in an animal model. Thus, the modified, standardized assay to phenotype Salmonella association, invasion and replication in macrophages with high-throughput capacity could be utilized more broadly to study bacterial-host interactions.