A study on the diversity of the moth community in the North Dagang Wetland Nature Reserve, Tianjin, China

North Dagang Wetland Nature Reserve is situated in the southeast of Tianjin, China. It is the biggest wetland nature reserve in Tianjin. An investigation into the diversity of the moth community was carried out from June 12 to October 14, 2001, and then from April 12 to October 30, 2002. The investigation was conducted in order to identify the moth species in wetlands, study their dynamic laws, select indicator insects to indicate wetland quality, and assist in the study and protection of wetlands. A total of 132 moth species were collected, which belonged to 105 genera in 17 families. The data about insects which was collected during the survey was listed and constructed in terms of species-abundance, indices of diversity (H′), evenness (J′), specific richness (S) and individual number (N) using the Microsoft Excel Program. The status of the wetlands was also analyzed using the moth community species-abundance curve, indices of diversity, the connection between evenness and richness indices, etc. The results show that moth species in the wetlands were not rich, and the moth community was unstable. In other words, the living environment of the moths and the environmental quality of the wetlands were unstable due to the serious degeneration of the wetland environment and human activities.     

Adaptive auditory risk assessment in the dogbane tiger moth when pursued by bats

Moths and butterflies flying in search of mates risk detection by numerous aerial predators; under the cover of night, the greatest threat will often be from insectivorous bats. During such encounters, the toxic dogbane tiger moth, Cycnia tenera uses the received intensity, duration and emission pattern of the bat''s echolocation calls to determine when, and how many, defensive ultrasonic clicks to produce in return. These clicks, which constitute an acoustic startle response, act as warning signals against bats in flight. Using an integrated test of stimulus generalization and dishabituation, here we show that C. tenera is able to discriminate between the echolocation calls characteristic of a bat that has only just detected it versus those of a bat actively in pursuit of it. We also show that C. tenera habituates more profoundly to the former stimulus train (‘early attack’) than to the latter (‘late attack’), even though it was initially equally responsive to both stimuli. Matched sensory and behavioural data indicate that reduced responsiveness reflects habituation and is not merely attributable to sensory adaptation or motor fatigue. In search of mates in the face of bats, C. tenera''s ability to discriminate between attacking bats representing different levels of risk, and to habituate less so to those most dangerous, should function as an adaptive cost–benefit trade-off mechanism in nature.     

Climate‐induced increase of moth multivoltinism in boreal regions

Aim An increase in multivoltinism in ectothermic animals has been proposed by several authors as a possible outcome of climate warming, especially in high latitudes. We tested this prediction with large‐scale empirical monitoring data for boreal moth communities. Location Finland, northern Europe. Methods Our data set comprised observations of multivoltine species made in the Finnish moth monitoring scheme ‘Nocturna’ trap sites during the period 1993–2006 along an exceptionally long latitudinal gradient of 1000 km. To compare recent changes in moth multivoltinism with a longer time period, we gathered older time series of moth observations from five locations. We used generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) to detect possible temporal and geographical trends in the annual occurrence of multivoltinism. We also identified areas where the recent changes in multivoltinism have been greatest. Monthly average temperatures of spring and summer periods and annual sum of growing degree days above 5 °C (GDD5) were used as explanatory variables to distinguish the main climatic correlates of moth multivoltinism. Results We observed a clear increase in the occurrence of moth multivoltinism during the period 1993–2006. The incidence as well as the recent increase in multivoltinism were highest in southernmost Finland and decreased towards the north. We also detected a weaker, although significantly positive, trend of moth multivoltinism in southern Finland during the period 1963–92, suggesting that this increasing trend might already have begun earlier. The most important climatic correlates for the annual occurrence of moth multivoltinism were the mean summer temperature (periods May–July and June–August) and GDD5, but all the tested climatic variables showed a significant univariate relationship with the occurrence of moth multivoltinism. All climatic variables showed an increasing trend during the period 1993–2006. Main conclusions The occurrence of multivoltinism has increased in northern European moth communities during recent decades, apparently as a response to increasing temperatures during the spring and summer seasons. The increase in multivoltinism was greatest in the southernmost parts of Finland, whereas in the northern landscapes recent warming has triggered multivoltinism in only relatively few moth species.     

Eye Attached Hemipollinaria in the Hawkmoth and Settling Moth Pollination of Habenaria (Orchidaceae): A Study on Functional Morphology in 5 Species from Subtropical South America

Morphological adaptations to sphingophily and pollination by moths was studied in 5 South American Habenaria species. For H. gourlieana and H. hieronymi direct evidence of hawkmoth (Agrius cingulatus and Manduca sexta) and settling moth (Rachiplusia nu) pollination, respectively, by hemipollinaria attachment on the eyes, is presented. In two other species (H. paucofilia, H. rupicola) pollination by settling moths and eye attachment of the hemipollinaria can be inferred by indirect evidence (placement of scales and massulae on the flowers) and by flower structure. For the fifth species (H. montevidensis) pollination by small moths or mosquitoes with hemipollinaria attachment on the proboscis is postulated. A comparative study in floral features revealed clear morphological divergence between sphingophilous and phalaenophilous species. In addition to deeper spurs the former have slender, exerted, and upturned petal lobes (acting as mechanical guide to the hovering visitors), a much developed median rostellar lobe (acting as deflecting surface of the hawkmoths towards the viscidia), flexible and sinuous hemipollinarium caudicles (appropriate for frontal strikes against the stigma when hemipollinaria are brought by the hawkmoths dangling against the flower). Male efficiency was compared between 4 species with overlapping flowering time in the same area. Male efficiency factors were unexpectedly low in all species. Only in one species (H. hieronymi) each pollen donation accounted for more than one pollination. H. gourlieana is part of a more or less rich sphingophilous flora interacting with the same two long-tongued hawkmoth species. Interspecific competition for pollen placement on the pollinator's body surface is probably low on account of different pollination mechanisms.     

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in arctiid moths (Lep.) with a discussion on host plant relationships and the role of these secondary plant substances in the Arctiidae

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) have been identified in six species of Arctiidae reared on Senecio and Crotalaria. These include senecionine, seneciphylline, integerrimine, jacobine, jacozine, jacoline, jaconine and a metabolite (C₁₅H₂₅NO₅) from Senecio , and monocrotaline, trichodesmine and crispatine from Crotalaria.
The all-red aberration of Tyria jacobaeae (var. conyi) contained much less of the metabolite than normal examples of this species. Female Spilosoma lutea reared on the same plants of S. jacobaea contained markedly more jacobine and jacoline than die males.
Host plant relationships and secondary plant substances are discussed. It is suggested that the Arctiid moths' own deterrent secretions, directed against vertebrate predators, pre-adapts them for feeding on foliage likewise protected against large herbivores by toxic secondary plant substances such as cardenolides and pyrrolizidine alkaloids. These latter substances are more toxic to vertebrate than to insect herbivores, and their dual function of deterrent and insect aphrodisiac puts a premium on their sequestration and storage once a species has achieved the initial steps, and occupied the plant niche concerned. It is further suggested that the polyphagous habits of the Arctiidae result in a more equitable distribution of die secondary plant substances within the Mullerian complex concerned, thus providing a generalized warning message for the potential vertebrate predator.     

The pollination biology of Sauroglossum elatum Lindl. (Orchidaceae: Spiranthinae): moth-pollination and protandry in neotropical Spiranthinae

The pollination biology of Sauroglossum elatum Lindl (Orchidaceae: Spiranthinae) was studied in the State of São Paulo, south-eastern Brazil. This orchid is protandrous and almost fully self-compatible, but pollinator-dependent. Thus, pollinators are required for the plants to set fruits and seeds. The flowers are pollinated by moths of the family Noctuidae. Pollinia are dislodged when the moths probe flowers in the male phase. At this stage the stigmatic surface is inaccessible, so that the flowers can act only as pollen-donors. Flowers in the female phase present their stigmatic surfaces well exposed and dry viscidia; at this stage the flowers act as pollen receivers. Pollinarium-bearing moths, when visiting a flower in the female phase, will brush the pollinarium against the stigmatic surface, thus effecting the pollination. Moth-pollination is reported here for the first time for the orchid subtribe Spiranthinae. Protandry also occurs in a few additional Brazilian Spiranthinae. Based on the evidence presented in this work, protandry in Spiranthinae is not necessarily linked to bumblebee pollination, as currently accepted. It is suggested that the occurrence of protandry in Spiranthinae and in the closely related subtribes Prescottinae and Goodyerinae may also be a feature encompassing ecological and phylogenetic implications. Anecdotal ex-situ observations are briefly discussed. Cultivated specimens were actively visited by Tetragonisca angustula (Meliponini) bees. which broke the pollinaria, collected the pollen and eventually performed pollination by leaving small fragments of the pollinia on the stigmatic surface. © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 138 , 9–16.     

A review of the genera of Macariini with a revised classification of the tribe (Geometridae: Ennominae)

The generic classification of moths of the tribe Macariini Guenée is reviewed critically, and a revised classification is presented. The review is based on a survey of species across the taxonomic and geographical range of the tribe. In the new framework, the number of genera is reduced considerably. Two genera are very large: Macaria Curtis (mainly New World) and Chiasmia Hübner (largely Old World) together include over half of all macariine species. Twenty-three genera are accepted in the tribe; the identity of two genera remain uncertain. No single character defines the tribe, but diagnostic features include one or more of the following: the presence of enlarged setae ('horns') on the uncus in the male genitalia; a divided valva; and a modified condition of sternum A8 in the male. The taxonomic history of the tribe is reviewed briefly and the problems of previous systems are explained mainly by the regional approach adopted. A diagnosis is presented for each genus. © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2002, 134 , 257–315.     

Female greater wax moths reduce sexual display behavior in relation to the potential risk of predation by echolocating bats

Female greater wax moths Galleria mellonella display by wing fanning in response to bursts of ultrasonic calls produced bymales. The temporal and spectral characteristics of these callsshow some similarities with the echolocation calls of batsthat emit frequency-modulated (FM) signals. Female G. mellonellatherefore need to distinguish between the attractive signalsof male conspecifics, which may lead to mating opportunities,and similar sounds made by predatory bats. We therefore predictedthat (1) females would display in response to playbacks of male calls; (2) females would not display in response to playbacksof the calls of echolocating bats (we used the calls of Daubenton'sbat Myotis daubentonii as representative of a typical FM echolocatingbat); and (3) when presented with male calls and bat callsduring the same time block, females would display more whenperceived predation risk was lower. We manipulated predationrisk in two ways. First, we varied the intensity of bat callsto represent a nearby (high risk) or distant (low risk) bat.Second, we played back calls of bats searching for prey (lowrisk) and attacking prey (high risk). All predictions weresupported, suggesting that female G. mellonella are able todistinguish conspecific male mating calls from bat calls, andthat they modify display rate in relation to predation risk.The mechanism (s) by which the moths separate the calls ofbat and moth must involve temporal cues. Bat and moth signalsdiffer considerably in duration, and differences in durationcould be encoded by the moth's nervous system and used in discrimination.     

Diversity and composition of Arctiidae moth ensembles along a successional gradient in the Ecuadorian Andes

Andean montane rain forests are among the most species‐rich terrestrial habitats. Little is known about their insect communities and how these respond to anthropogenic habitat alteration. We investigated exceptionally speciose ensembles of nocturnal tiger moths (Arctiidae) at 15 anthropogenically disturbed sites, which together depict a gradient of forest recovery and six closed‐forest understorey sites in southern Ecuador. At weak light traps we sampled 9211 arctiids, representing 287 species. Arctiid abundance and diversity were highest at advanced succession sites, where secondary scrub or young forest had re‐established, followed by early succession sites, and were lowest, but still high, in mature forest understorey. The proportion of rare species showed the reverse pattern. We ordinated moth samples by non‐metric multidimensional scaling using the chord‐normalized expected species shared index (CNESS) index at various levels of the sample size parameter m. A distinct segregation of arctiid ensembles at succession sites from those in mature forest consistently emerged only at high m‐values. Segregation between ensembles of early vs. late succession stages was also clear at high m values only, and was rather weak. Rare species were responsible for much of the faunal difference along the succession gradient, whereas many common arctiid species occurred in all sites. Matrix correlation tests as well as exploration of relationships between ordination axes and environmental variables revealed the degree of habitat openness, and to a lesser extent, elevation, as best predictors of faunal dissimilarity. Faunal differences were not related to geographical distances between sampling sites. Our results suggest that many of the more common tiger moths of Neotropical montane forests have a substantial recolonization potential at the small spatial scale of our study and accordingly occur also in landscape mosaics surrounding nature reserves. These species contribute to the unexpectedly high diversity of arctiid ensembles at disturbed sites, whereas the proportion of rare species declines outside mature forest.