The relationship between outbreaks, rainfall and low density populations of the African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta, in Kenya

This study has demonstrated that low numbers of African armyworms (Spodoptera exempta) (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) can be found throughout the year in parts of the coastal and highland regions of Kenya where there is frequent rainfall. During the study period the numbers of moths caught in pheromone traps in these regions built up during the short and long rains, and decreased dramatically during the intervening dry seasons. There was a lag of one to two months between the peaks for rainfall and moth numbers. This contrasts with the situation at sites of the seasonal outbreaks of armyworm larvae, where a sudden preceding influx of moths coincides with the rainfall. A positive correlation was found, for the long rains seasons only, between the number of armyworm outbreaks throughout the country and the peak numbers of moths in coastal and highland regions.It is suggested therefore that the peak numbers of moths trapped in the eastern highlands and coastal regions during the rainy seasons arise principally from outbreaks in the extensive seasonal grasslands. These grassland areas diminish considerably during the prolonged dry periods between the two rainy seasons, and it is only the eastern highland and coastal regions that are likely to provide suitable habitats for breeding during the dry seasons. The significance of these populations for initiating the first outbreaks of the following season is discussed.     

Neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of the locust hypocerebral ganglion

The insect stomatogastric ganglia control foregut movements. Most previous work on the system has concentrated on the frontal ganglion (FG), including research into the role of the FG in feeding as well as molting-related behavior, mostly in locusts, but also in other insect species. The stomatogastric system exerts its physiological actions by way of careful interaction and coordination between its different neural centers and pattern-generating circuits. One such hitherto unstudied neural center is the hypocerebral ganglion (HG), which is connected to the FG via the recurrent nerve. It sends two pairs of nerves along the esophagus and to the posterior region of the crop, terminating in the paired ingluvial ganglia. Very little is known about the neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of the insect HG. Here we investigate, for the first time, the neuronal composition of the locust HG, as well as its motor output. We identify rhythmic patterns endogenous to the isolated HG, demonstrating the presence of a central pattern-generating network. Our findings suggest interactions between the HG and FG rhythm-generating circuits leading to complex physiological actions of both ganglia. This work will serve as a basis for future investigation into the physiology of the HG and its role in insect behavior.     

Phytosterol unsuitability as a factor mediating food aversion learning in the grasshopper Schistocerca americana

Abstract Sixth stadium nymphs of the grasshopper Schistocerca americana (Drury) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) were presented with spinach with or without added cholesterol or β-sitosterol, and the lengths of the first four meals were monitored. Spinach alone evoked a typical aversion learning pattern in which successive meals were of decreasing duration; however, when cholesterol or β-sitosterol was added the spinach remained acceptable. Nymphs fed spinach for 24h preferred glass-fibre discs with added cholesterol in a choice test, but nymphs fed wheat (an acceptable food) did not prefer cholesterol-treated or control discs. Nymphs pretreated with spinach did not distinguish between discs treated with stigmasterol (an unsuitable phytosterol for grasshoppers) and control discs. In no-choice tests, nymphs pretreated with spinach also fed significantly longer on discs with added 10% cholesterol or 1%β-sitosterol, compared to meals on discs with stigmasterol or sucrose controls. Detection of appropriate sterols is likely to involve a post-ingestive feedback mechanism, as significantly longer meals on discs treated with only sucrose resulted when spinach-fed nymphs, were force-fed gelatin capsules packed with β-sitosterol or cholesterol, compared with stigmasterol. Contact chemoreception is unlikely to play a role in this behaviour, as discs (lacking sucrose) treated with cholesterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, or a chloroform control, all required similar numbers of contacts before feeding was initiated.     

Oxygen consumption of flying locusts

ABSTRACT. Desert locusts ( Schistocerca gregaria Forskal.) were flown into an airstream from a wind tunnel while tethered to a balance. Rate of oxygen consumption and lift were recorded. The mean rate of oxygen consumption of male locusts in level flight at airspeeds between 2.5 and 3m/s was found to be 12.6ml/g/h.     

Estimation of density threshold of gregarization of desert locust hoppers from field sampling in Mauritania

For desert locusts, Schistocerca gregaria (Forskål) (Orthoptera: Acrididae), the hopper density threshold of gregarization remains poorly documented. Field sampling was carried out in traditional seasonal breeding areas of Mauritania during two successive years without invasion to approximate the gregarization threshold. Hopper densities were assessed at numerous sampling sites. Vegetation was also sampled to characterize the habitats. Hopper behavior was analyzed in situ with the help of a behavioral circular arena to test our assumptions on empirical locust phases determination based on physical appearance (coloration and behavior) following FAO guidelines. The results provided a critical density value around 2.45 hoppers m^?2, above which gregarious hoppers were expected to be seen more frequently in nature. Hopper density was confirmed as the main factor explaining the presence of gregarious individuals. The level of involvement of vegetation parameters such as plant density, basal area, volume, distance between plants, greenness, or combinations of these indicators was low in explaining the observation of gregarious hoppers compared with hopper density. Vegetation cover and height were the only vegetation characteristics that could enhance the prediction of phase status with hopper density. The hoppers' phase determined from their behavior observed in the arena was similar to that characterized through FAO guidelines phase assessment, making consistent the field sampling method. Additionnally, the use of this arena illustrated that the grouping behavior of hoppers is a gradual response to density. This study can be seen as a step forward in the estimation of hopper density thresholds of gregarization in the field. This should improve the decision making for intervention during preventive control operations.     

The optomotor yaw response of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria

Abstract The optomotor yaw response of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk.), was investigated under open- and closed-loop conditions. When flying tethered in the centre of a vertically striped hollow sphere, the polarity of response of the locust was always the same as the stimulus. The response, therefore, appears suitable to stabilize body posture against passive rotations around the yaw-axis in free flight. Responses were induced by contrast frequencies up to 150 Hz with a maximum of amplitude at about 20 Hz. The characteristic curve, measured between 0.3 and 160 Hz, is widened up towards higher frequencies as compared with those of bees and flies.
Variability was the most striking feature in the locust's yaw response. The amplitude of modulation not only varied greatly between individuals but also changed with the same visual stimulus in the course of an experiment. We therefore suppose that the locust's turning behaviour is subject to gain control mechanisms and that spontaneous gain modulations are responsible for the observed variability in the stimulus-response conversion.     

NO/cGMP signalling: <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">L</Emphasis>-citrulline and cGMP immunostaining in the central complex of the desert locust <Emphasis Type="Italic">Schistocerca gregaria</Emphasis>

Nitric oxide (NO) is a gaseous messenger molecule formed during conversion of L-arginine into L-citrulline by the enzyme NO synthase (NOS), which belongs to a group of NADPH diaphorases. Because of its gaseous diffusion properties, NO differs from classical neurotransmitters in that it is not restricted to synaptic terminals. In target cells, NO activates soluble guanylyl cyclase leading to an increase in cGMP levels. In insects, this NO/cGMP-signalling pathway is involved in development, memory formation and processing of visual, olfactory and mechanosensory information. We have analysed the distribution of putative NO donor and target cells in the central complex, a brain area involved in sky-compass orientation, of the locust Schistocerca gregaria by immunostaining for L-citrulline and cGMP. Six types of citrulline-immunostained neurons have been identified including a bilateral pair of hitherto undescribed neurons that connect the lateral accessory lobes with areas anterior to the medial lobes of the mushroom bodies. Three-dimensional reconstructions have revealed the connectivity pattern of a set of 18 immunostained pontine neurons of the central body. All these neurons appear to be a subset of previously mapped NADPH-diaphorase-positive neurons of the central complex. At least three types of central-complex neurons show cGMP immunostaining including a system of novel columnar neurons connecting the upper division of the central body and the lateral triangle of the lateral accessory lobe. Our results provide the morphological basis for further studies of the function of the labelled neurons and new insights into NO/cGMP signalling. This work was supported by DFG grant HO 950/16-2.     

Volumetric feedback and the control of meal size in Schistocerca gregaria

The role and nature of volumetric feedbacks in the regulation of meal size was investigated for Schistocerca gregaria. Feedback from the anterior region of the crop was found to be important and denervation led to hyperphagia. Additional feedbacks were found from more posterior gut regions. Cannulating agar or paraffin into the mid- and hindgut caused a decrease in the size of a following meal. This effect was removed by cutting the ventral nerve cord anterior to the terminal abdominal ganglion. Increasing the blood volume by injections of isotonic saline into the haemocoel was also found to decrease subsequent meal size. This effect was not mediated via the gut or body wall stretch receptors and possible mechanisms are discussed. The results for S. gregaria are compared with those obtained previously from Locusta migratoria.

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Résumé L'étude de la nature et du rôle des feed backs volumétriques dans la régulation de la taille du repas a été effectuée chez S. gregaria. Un feed back, originaire de la région antérieure du jabot, s'est révélé important et la dénervation a provoqué l'hyperphagie. Des feed backs supplémentaires ont été décelés dans des régions plus postérieures du jabot. De l'agar ou de la paraffine canulés dans la jabot moyen et postérieur ont provoqué une diminution de la taille du repas suivant. Ces effets sont supprimés avec la section de la corde nerveuse centrale avant le ganglion abdominal terminal. L'augmentation du volume sanguin par des injections de solution saline isotonique a aussi diminué la taille du repas suivant. Cet effet n'est pas transmis via des récepteurs de tension du jabot ou de la paroi du corps; des mécanismes envisageables sont discutés. Ces résultats avec S. gregaria sont comparés à ceux obtenus antérieurement avec Locusta migratoria.

     

Metabolism of [3H]-ecdysone in Schistocerca gregaria; formation of ecdysteroid acids together with free and phosphorylated ecdysteroid acetates

The metabolism of [³H]-ecdysone has been investigated at times of low and high endogenous ecdysteroid tit re, in early and late fifth-instar Schistocerca gregaria larvae, respectively. Ecdysone-3-acetate, 20-hydroxyecdysone, and 20,26-dihydroxyecdysone were identified as metabolites in both the free form and as polar conjugates. Comparison of the intact polar conjugates of the ecdysteroid acetates on two HPLC systems with the corresponding authentic compounds indicated that they were 3-acetylecdysone-2-phosphate and 3-acetyl-20-hydroxyecdysone-2-phosphate. Other major polar metabolites were identified as ecdysonoic acid and 20-hydroxyecdysonoic acid. Ecdysone metabolism in fifth-instar S. gregaria is apparently an age-dependent process. Early in the instar, excretion of both free and conjugated ecdysteroids, as well as ecdysteroid 26-acids, occurs. At this stage the level of ecdysteroid acetates in the conjugated (phosphate) form is high, in contrast to the free ecdysteroids, where ecdysone predominates. When the endogenous hormone titre is high, the formation of ecdysteroid acetates is less, the major excreted matabolites at that stage being conjugated 20-hydroxyecdysone together with ecdysteroid-26-acids, but little free ecdysteroids. Acetylation of ecdysone occurs primarily in the gastric caecae. Ecdysone-3-acetate (mainly as polar conjugate) is also a major product of ingested ecdysone in early fifth-instar Locusta migratoria.     

The distribution of GABA-like immunoreactivity in the thoracic nervous system of the locust Schistocerca gregaria

Summary An antiserum raised against gamma aminobuyric acid (GABA) was used to stain the thoracic nervous system of the locust. It stained both neuronal somata and processes within the neuropile. Among the stained somata, those of the three pairs of common inhibitory motor neurones could be identified in each of the three thoracic ganglia. In the pro- and mesothoracic ganglia five discrete groups of somata are stained, four ventral and one dorsal. In the metathoracic neuromere, an additional second dorsal group can be identified. In the abdominal neuromeres of the metathoracic ganglion both dorsal and ventral somata are stained but the latter cannot be divided into discrete populations. In each ganglion, dorsal commissures (DC) IV and V are composed of stained neurites, DCVII, the supramedian commissure, the perpendicular tract, and all the longitudinal tracts contain both stained and unstained neurites. DCI, II, III and VI, the T and I tracts are unstained. An abundance of GABA-like immunoreactive processes is found throughout the neuropile except for the anterior ventral association centre where stained processes are sparser. Some of the stained cell groups contain neurones that have been studied physiologically. The function of these neurones is discussed.Beit Memorial Fellow