Mast cell-nerve axis with a focus on the human gut

This paper summarizes the current knowledge on the interactions between intestinal mast cells, enteric neurons and visceral afferents which are part of the gut brain axis. The focus of this review is on the relevance of the mast cell-nerve axis in the human intestine. Similarities and important differences in the organization of the mast cell-nerve axis between human and rodents are discussed. Functionally important human mast cell mediators with neural actions in the human ENS are histamine (H1-4 receptors), proteases (PAR1 receptors), several cytokines and chemokines and probably also serotonin (5-HT₃ receptors). On the other hand, mediator release from human intestinal mast cells is modulated by neuropeptides released from enteric and visceral afferent nerves. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mast Cells in Inflammation.     

Key enzymes of the retinoid (visual) cycle in vertebrate retina

A major goal in vision research over the past few decades has been to understand the molecular details of retinoid processing within the retinoid (visual) cycle. This includes the consequences of side reactions that result from delayed all-trans-retinal clearance and condensation with phospholipids that characterize a variety of serious retinal diseases. Knowledge of the basic retinoid biochemistry involved in these diseases is essential for development of effective therapeutics. Photoisomerization of the 11-cis-retinal chromophore of rhodopsin triggers a complex set of metabolic transformations collectively termed phototransduction that ultimately lead to light perception. Continuity of vision depends on continuous conversion of all-trans-retinal back to the 11-cis-retinal isomer. This process takes place in a series of reactions known as the retinoid cycle, which occur in photoreceptor and RPE cells. All-trans-retinal, the initial substrate of this cycle, is a chemically reactive aldehyde that can form toxic conjugates with proteins and lipids. Therefore, much experimental effort has been devoted to elucidate molecular mechanisms of the retinoid cycle and all-trans-retinal-mediated retinal degeneration, resulting in delineation of many key steps involved in regenerating 11-cis-retinal. Three particularly important reactions are catalyzed by enzymes broadly classified as acyltransferases, short-chain dehydrogenases/reductases and carotenoid/retinoid isomerases/oxygenases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Retinoid and Lipid Metabolism.     

VEGF165b对糖尿病大鼠视网膜神经节细胞保护作用的研究

目的:VEGF165b是新发现的血管内皮生长因子的变构体之一,本研究将观察其对糖尿病大鼠视网膜神经节细胞的抗凋亡作用.方法:采用四氧嘧啶诱发糖尿病大鼠模型,分为正常对照组(CON),糖尿病组(DM),糖尿病VEGF165b低剂量治疗组(DMT1)、中剂量治疗组(DMT2),糖尿病高剂量治疗组(DMT3),糖尿病单纯胰岛素治疗组(DMT4),所有治疗组在糖尿病成模后1个月开始治疗.2个月后处死各组大鼠,摘取眼球进行光镜形态学观察、核苷酸末端转移酶介导的dUTP缺口翻译法(TUNEL法)视网膜神经节细胞凋亡检测.结果:VEGF165b治疗使糖尿病大鼠视网膜光镜形态学改变减轻,能有效的抑制视网膜神经节细胞凋亡.VEGF165b治疗组视网膜神经节凋亡细胞数较DM组明显减少(P＜0.01),与糖尿病大鼠单纯胰岛素治疗组相比差异也有统计学意义.随着VEGF165b浓度的增加视网膜神经节细胞凋亡个数减少,但1ng/μL组与10ng/μL组相比差异无统计学意义.结论:VEGF165b对视网膜神经节细胞有保护作用,可能对糖尿病视网膜病变具有治疗有意义.     

Substance P as a baro- and chemoreceptor afferent neurotransmitter: immunocytochemical and neurochemical evidence in the rat

The possibility that substances P (SP) is a neurotransmitter of baro- and chemoreceptor afferents in the rat was investigated. SP-like immunoreactivity (SP-I) was analyzed quantitatively by radioimmunoassay in various levels of the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), the site of termination of these afferents while SP-containing afferent neurons were studied in various portions of the peripheral pathways by immunocytochemistry. It was found that the NTS contained significant amounts of SP-I and that unilateral removal of the nodose ganglia reduces the SP-I content of those portions of the NTS known to receive vagal afferents. In addition, SP-I was visualized in discrete fibers in the tunica adventitia of the aortic arch and carotid sinus regions, the vagus nerve and nodose ganglia. These results in the rat are consistent with our previous studies in the cat and provide further evidence that SP is contained within baro- and chemoreceptor afferent nerves.     

RPE-derived factors modulate photoreceptor differentiation: A possible role in the retinal stem cell niche

A photoreceptor cell line, designated 661W, was tested for its response to growth factors secreted by retinal pigment epithelial cells including basic fibroblast growth factor, epidermal growth factor, and nerve growth factor. Early passaged 661W cells expressed high levels of retinal progenitor markers such as nestin and Pax6, but not opsin or glial fibrillary acidic protein. 661W cells grown in FGF-2 or EGF exhibited a multiple-process morphology with small phase-bright nuclei similar to neurons, whereas cells cultured in nerve growth factor (NGF) or retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)-conditioned medium (RPE-CM) displayed rounded profiles lacking processes. 661W cells grown in FGF-2 were slightly elevated, but not significantly above, control cultures; but cells treated with RPE-CM or NGF were fewer, ∼63% and 49% of control, respectively. NGF immunodepletion of RPE-CM strongly suppressed the inhibitory activity of RPE-CM on cell proliferation. Cells treated with FGF-2, but not NGF, upregulated their expression of opsin. All treatment conditions resulted in almost 100% viability based on calcium AM staining. Cells grown on extracellular matrix proteins laminin, fibronectin, and/or collagen resembled those grown on untreated dishes. This study showed that early passaged 661W cells displayed characteristics of retinal progenitor cells. The 661W cells proliferated and appeared to mature morphologically expressing rod photoreceptor phenotype in response to FGF-2. In contrast, NGF and RPE-CM inhibited proliferation and morphological differentiation of 661W cells, possibly inducing cell cycle arrest. These findings are consistent with reports that the RPE modulates photoreceptor differentiation and retinal progenitor cells via secreted factors and may play a role in the regulation of the retinal stem cell niche.     

The lens controls cell survival in the retina: Evidence from the blind cavefish Astyanax

The lens influences retinal growth and differentiation during vertebrate eye development but the mechanisms are not understood. The role of the lens in retinal growth and development was studied in the teleost Astyanax mexicanus, which has eyed surface-dwelling (surface fish) and blind cave-dwelling (cavefish) forms. A lens and laminated retina initially develop in cavefish embryos, but the lens dies by apoptosis. The cavefish retina is subsequently disorganized, apoptotic cells appear, the photoreceptor layer degenerates, and retinal growth is arrested. We show here by PCNA, BrdU, and TUNEL labeling that cell proliferation continues in the adult cavefish retina but the newly born cells are removed by apoptosis. Surface fish to cavefish lens transplantation, which restores retinal growth and rod cell differentiation, abolished apoptosis in the retina but not in the RPE. Surface fish lens deletion did not cause apoptosis in the surface fish retina or affect RPE differentiation. Neither lens transplantation in cavefish nor lens deletion in surface fish affected retinal cell proliferation. We conclude that the lens acts in concert with another optic component, possibly the RPE, to promote retinal cell survival. Accordingly, deficiency in both optic structures may lead to eye degeneration in cavefish.