Reduced reproductive function in wild baboons (Papio hamadryas anubis) related to natural consumption of the African black plum (Vitex doniana)

Several authors have suggested that the consumption of plant compounds may have direct effects on wild primate reproductive biology, but no studies have presented physiological evidence of such effects. Here, for two troops of olive baboons (Papio hamadryas anubis) at Gashaka-Gumti National Park, Nigeria, we show major seasonal increases in levels of fecal progesterone metabolites in females, and provide evidence that this is linked to the consumption of natural plant compounds. Increases in fecal progestogen excretion occurred seasonally in all females, in all reproductive states, including lactation. Detailed feeding data on the study animals showed that only one food species is consumed by both troops at the time of observed progestogen peaks, and at no other times of the year: the African black plum, Vitex doniana. Laboratory tests demonstrated the presence of high concentrations of progestogen-like compounds in V. doniana. Together with published findings linking the consumption of a related Vitex species (Vitex agnus castus) to increased progestogen levels in humans, our data suggest that natural consumption of V. doniana was a likely cause of the observed increases in progestogens. Levels of progestogen excretion in the study baboons during periods of V. doniana consumption are higher than those found during pregnancy, and prevent the expression of the sexual swelling, which is associated with ovulatory activity. As consortship and copulatory activity in baboons occur almost exclusively in the presence of a sexual swelling, V. doniana appears to act on cycling females as both a physiological contraceptive (simulating pregnancy in a similar way to some forms of the human contraceptive pill) and a social contraceptive (preventing sexual swelling, thus reducing association and copulation with males). The negative effects of V. doniana on reproduction may be counter-balanced by the wide-range of medicinal properties attributed to plants in this genus. This is the first time that physiological evidence has been presented of direct effects of plant consumption on the reproductive biology of wild primates.     

Mechanisms of sexual selection: sexual swellings and estrogen concentrations as fertility indicators and cues for male consort decisions in wild baboons

Male mate-guarding episodes ('consortships'), are taxonomically widespread, yet costly to individual males. Consequently, males should bias consortships toward females with whom the probability of conception is high. We combined data on consortships with visual scoring of sexual swellings and assays of fecal estrogen concentrations (fE) in a wild population of baboons (Papio cynocephalus) to test the hypotheses that sexual swellings are reliable indicators of (1) within-cycle timing of ovulation, (2) differences in conception probability among females that differ in maturational stage, and (3) conceptive versus non-conceptive cycles of parous females. We also evaluated whether adult males might rely on swellings or other estrogen-dependent signals (e.g., fE) for mate-guarding decisions. We found that sexual swellings reflected conception probability within and among cycles. Adult males limited their consortships to the turgescent phase of cycles, and consorted more with adult females than with newly cycling adolescents. The highest ranking (alpha) males discriminated more than did males of other ranks; they (1) limited their consortships to the 5-day peri-ovulatory period, (2) consorted more with adult than with adolescent females, and (3) consorted more with adult females on conceptive cycles than on non-conceptive cycles, all to a greater extent than did males of other ranks. Male mate choice based on sexual swellings and other estrogenic cues of fertility may result in sexual selection on these female traits and enhance dominance-based reproductive skew in males. Alpha males are the least constrained in their mating behavior and can best take advantage of these cues to mate selectively.     

Temporal dynamics of oocyte development, plasma sex steroids and somatic energy reserves during seasonal ovarian maturation in captive Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii

The temporal dynamics of oocyte growth, plasma sex steroids and somatic energy stores were examined during a 12 month ovarian maturation cycle in captive Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii under simulated natural photothermal conditions. Ovarian function was found to be relatively uninhibited in captivity, with the exception that post-vitellogenic follicles failed to undergo final maturation, resulting in widespread pre-ovulatory atresia. Seasonal patterns of oocyte growth were characterised by cortical alveoli accumulation in March, deposition of lipids in April, and vitellogenesis between May and September. Two distinct batches of vitellogenic oocytes were found in Murray cod ovaries, indicating a capacity for multiple spawns. Plasma profiles of 17β-oestradiol and testosterone were both highly variable during the maturation period suggesting that multiple roles exist for these steroids during different stages of oocyte growth. Condition factor, liver size and visceral fat stores were all found to increase prior to, or during the peak phase of vitellogenic growth. Murray cod appear to strategically utilise episodes of high feeding activity to accrue energy reserves early in the reproductive cycle prior to its deployment during periods of rapid ovarian growth.     

Oxysterols: Genesis and basic functions

The structural peculiarities of the most widespread oxysterols, the products of oxidative transformations of cholesterol are discussed. The transformations proceed with the participation of enzymatic systems of the body or as a result of various nonenzymatic reactions. The pathways of their formation from cholesterol are also considered. The role of oxysterols in the maintenance of cholesterol homeostasis and in the development of atherosclerosis is reviewed. The possibility of using oxysterols as markers of pathological processes is demonstrated.     

圈养林麝粪便类固醇激素保存时效性研究

用非损伤性采样方法对圈养林麝在三个条件:1)未处理,2)90%甲醇,3)0.9%抗生素,15个时间梯度下(20℃)的粪便中类固醇激素及其代谢物的保存时间及方法进行了比较,结果表明:林麝粪便在室温下(20℃),孕酮及其代谢物48 h有明显的上升趋势;雌二醇、睾酮和皮质醇及其代谢物在18 h均出现显著变化;对比抗生素保存,用甲醇保存是一种较好的保存林麝粪便类固醇激素的方法;然而不同激素用甲醇保存的时间不同,孕酮不宜超过1个月,皮质醇不宜超过半个月,睾酮则不宜超过10天,而雌二醇可以保存2个月之久.     

Egg size and offspring quality: a meta‐analysis in birds

Parents affect offspring fitness by propagule size and quality, selection of oviposition site, quality of incubation, feeding of dependent young, and their defence against predators and parasites. Despite many case studies on each of these topics, this knowledge has not been rigorously integrated into individual parental care traits for any taxon. Consequently, we lack a comprehensive, quantitative assessment of how parental care modifies offspring phenotypes. This meta‐analysis of 283 studies with 1805 correlations between egg size and offspring quality in birds is intended to fill this gap. The large sample size enabled testing of how the magnitude of the relationship between egg size and offspring quality depends on a number of variables. Egg size was positively related to nearly all studied offspring traits across all stages of the offspring life cycle. Not surprisingly, the relationship was strongest at hatching but persisted until the post‐fledging stage. Morphological traits were the most closely related to egg size but significant relationships were also found with hatching success, chick survival, and growth rate. Non‐significant effect sizes were found for egg fertility, chick immunity, behaviour, and life‐history or sexual traits. Effect size did not depend on whether chicks were raised by their natural parents or were cross‐fostered to other territories. Effect size did not depend on species‐specific traits such as developmental mode, clutch size, and relative size of the egg, but was larger if tested in captive compared to wild populations and between rather than within broods. In sum, published studies support the view that egg size affects juvenile survival. There are very few studies that tested the relationship between egg size and the fecundity component of offspring fitness, and no studies on offspring survival as adults or on global fitness. More data are also needed for the relationships between egg size and offspring behavioural and physiological traits. It remains to be established whether the relationship between egg size and offspring performance depends on the quality of the offspring environment. Positive effect sizes found in this study are likely to be driven by a causal effect of egg size on offspring quality. However, more studies that control for potential confounding effects of parental post‐hatching care, genes, and egg composition are needed to establish firmly this causal link.     

Effects of handling on endocrinology and reproductive performance of the fathead minnow

Anaesthesia with MS-222 followed by intra-peritoneal (ip) injection (with a 10% ethanol in corn oil carrier) of fathead minnow either as one or three (weekly) treatments did not affect survival, behaviour or secondary sexual characteristics of the fish. Fecundity of the fish, as indicated by fertility and hatching success, was also unaffected. Gonadal condition (relative gonad mass, histopathology) was not altered in either sex. Male and female plasma sex steroids (β;-oestradiol, testosterone, 11-ketotestosterone) and male vitellogenin concentrations were not significantly affected by the treatments. Females subjected to either ip treatment regime had significantly higher plasma vitellogenin concentrations than control females. However, based on previous data, this difference did not appear to be treatment-related. Overall, exposure of fathead minnows to chemicals via the ip route should not confound the interpretation of toxicity tests with potential endocrine disrupting chemicals.     

Urinary testosterone levels of wild male bonobos (Pan paniscus) in the Lomako Forest, Democratic Republic of Congo

We collected urine samples from seven male bonobos (Pan paniscus) in the Eyengo community, Lomako Forest, Democratic Republic of Congo, and assayed them for testosterone (T). T levels averaged 525 pmol/mg Cr in adult males, and 309 pmol/mg Cr in subadult males. We collected hormonal and behavioral data during a period of relative social instability following the recent arrival of two immigrant males. In concordance with predictions derived from the challenge hypothesis [Wingfield et al., American Naturalist 136:829-846, 1990], which relates T to levels of reproductive aggression, the alpha male had the highest circulating levels of T. When we removed the two recent immigrant males from the analysis, there was a significant positive correlation between T levels and dominance rank for the long-term resident males (n=5, P=0.001, r2=0.98). These are the first data on T levels in wild bonobos, and the results suggest that further study of the relationship between T levels and social context in this species could inform current models relating hormones and aggression in wild apes.     

Testosterone and energetics in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)

Ovarian function in female hominoids is sensitive to both energy flux and energy balance, resulting in a reduced probability of conception during periods when a successful reproductive outcome is less likely. However, the extent to which energetic factors constrain gonadal function in male hominoids is not clear. We examined the effects of both acute and chronic variation in energy availability on urinary testosterone (T) levels in adult male chimpanzees. Acute changes in energy availability, which were assayed by means of observational data on feeding behavior, did not result in decreased T production for 11 individuals at Kibale National Park, Uganda. Chronic energy shortages, on the other hand, may be associated with lower T levels in this population. Adult males in Kibale (n=11), who maintain suboptimal access to energy, exhibit significantly lower urinary T levels than males in captivity (n=11), who are more sedentary and better fed. These results suggest that data on hormonal function in captive chimpanzees should be interpreted with caution because individuals may produce T at levels well above those that are typical in the wild. They also suggest that short-term variations in T levels in male hominoids are more likely to be explained by social factors than by energetic ones.     

Molecular and neurochemical evidence for the biosynthesis of dehydroepiandrosterone in the adult rat spinal cord

Various studies have indicated that exogenous dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) modulates several mechanisms in the CNS of rodents. As adult rodent glands do not secrete significant amounts of DHEA, its role as endogenous modulator of the CNS remains possible only if DHEA is produced by nerve cells. Therefore, the last decade has been marked by diverse unsuccessful investigations aiming to demonstrate the activity of cytochrome P450c17 (P450c17), the key DHEA-synthesizing enzyme, in adult rodent CNS. Here, we combined molecular, anatomical, cellular and neurochemical approaches to provide the first demonstration of the existence of P450c17 and bioactivity in adult rat spinal cord (SC). Real-time RT-PCR revealed P450c17 gene expression in all SC segments. Western blot analyses allowed identification of a specific P450c17 protein in the SC and immunohistochemical studies localized P450c17 in neurones and glial cells. Pulse-chase experiments combined with HPLC and radioactive steroid detection showed that SC slices converted [3H]pregnenolone into [3H]DHEA, a conversion markedly reduced by ketoconazole, a P450c17 inhibitor. Kinetics studies revealed accumulation of [3H]DHEA newly synthesized by SC slices in the incubation medium as its amount declined slowly. This first cellular mapping of an active P450c17 in adult rodent SC suggests that endogenous DHEA synthesized in spinal neural networks may control various spinally-mediated activities.