VEGF guides angiogenic sprouting utilizing endothelial tip cell filopodia

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A) is a major regulator of blood vessel formation and function. It controls several processes in endothelial cells, such as proliferation, survival, and migration, but it is not known how these are coordinately regulated to result in more complex morphogenetic events, such as tubular sprouting, fusion, and network formation. We show here that VEGF-A controls angiogenic sprouting in the early postnatal retina by guiding filopodial extension from specialized endothelial cells situated at the tips of the vascular sprouts. The tip cells respond to VEGF-A only by guided migration; the proliferative response to VEGF-A occurs in the sprout stalks. These two cellular responses are both mediated by agonistic activity of VEGF-A on VEGF receptor 2. Whereas tip cell migration depends on a gradient of VEGF-A, proliferation is regulated by its concentration. Thus, vessel patterning during retinal angiogenesis depends on the balance between two different qualities of the extracellular VEGF-A distribution, which regulate distinct cellular responses in defined populations of endothelial cells.     

Pathogen-derived resistance to Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) in transgenic mexican lime (Citrus aurantifolia (Christ.) Swing.) plants expressing its p25 coat protein gene

The p25 coat protein (CP) gene of Citrustristezavirus (CTV) was incorporated to Mexican lime plants and forty-twotransgeniclines were produced, 25 containing the p25 CP gene of thesevere CTV strain T-305 and 17 with that of the mild strain T-317. When plantspropagated from each transgenic line were graft-inoculated with CTV T-305 oraphidinoculated with T-300, two types of response to viral challenge wereobserved: some lines developed CTV symptoms similar to those of non-transgeniccontrols, whereas others exhibited protection against the virus. Thisprotectionconsisted of a proportion of plants, ranging from 10 to 33%, that wereresistantto CTV, and the rest of them that showed a significant delay in virusaccumulation and symptom onset. Protection was efficient against non-homologousCTV strains and was generally accompanied by high accumulation of p25 CP in theprotected lines, which suggest a CP-mediated protection mechanism in mostcases.This is the first report demonstrating pathogen-derived resistance intransgenicplants against a Closterovirus member in its natural host.     

Carbon isotopic record of terrestrial ecosystems spanning the Late Miocene extinction of Oreopithecus bambolii, Baccinello Basin (Tuscany, Italy)

Oreopithecus bambolii is a Late Miocene hominoid with an extensive fossil record in the Baccinello Basin (Tuscany, Italy), and was the only western European hominoid to survive a major extinction event ca. 9.6 Ma (millions of years ago). Oreopithecus lived in the insular Tusco-Sardinian paleobioprovince, where it evolved many unique anatomical specializations that make it important for understanding the mechanisms and history of Late Miocene hominoid evolution. The eventual extinction of Oreopithecus and its associated fauna ca. 6.5 Ma has generally been attributed to interaction with species that arrived from continental Europe following tectonic collision of the Tusco-Sardinian province with mainland Italy, but palynological, paleontological, and sedimentological records indicate an environmental shift toward more variable climate across the extinction event.To explore the possibility of environmental change as a contributing factor in the extinction of Oreopithecus, we developed a stable carbon and oxygen isotope record from organic matter in paleosols from the Baccinello Basin. These data show very low temporal and spatial variability (indicating plant ecosystem stability through time and space) and provide no evidence for ecologically significant changes in floral composition spanning the extinction event, suggesting that environmental change was not an underlying cause for the extinction of Oreopithecus and its associated fauna. The carbon isotope values fall entirely within the range of isotopic variability for modern plants following the C₃ photosynthetic pathway (trees, shrubs, cool-season grasses), indicating that C₄ vegetation (warm-season grasses) was not an important component of biomass. When corrected for temporal variation in the carbon isotopic composition of atmospheric carbon dioxide, the paleosol carbon isotope values are consistent with predicted values based on modern plants and the Baccinello palynoflora, supporting the reliability of paleosol isotopic records as paleoecological proxies.     

Energetic and biomechanical constraints on animal migration distance

Animal migration is one of the great wonders of nature, but the factors that determine how far migrants travel remain poorly understood. We present a new quantitative model of animal migration and use it to describe the maximum migration distance of walking, swimming and flying migrants. The model combines biomechanics and metabolic scaling to show how maximum migration distance is constrained by body size for each mode of travel. The model also indicates that the number of body lengths travelled by walking and swimming migrants should be approximately invariant of body size. Data from over 200 species of migratory birds, mammals, fish, and invertebrates support the central conclusion of the model - that body size drives variation in maximum migration distance among species through its effects on metabolism and the cost of locomotion. The model provides a new tool to enhance general understanding of the ecology and evolution of migration.     

Chloroplast envelope membranes: a dynamic interface between plastids and the cytosol

Chloroplasts are bounded by a pair of outer membranes, the envelope, that is the only permanent membrane structure of the different types of plastids. Chloroplasts have had a long and complex evolutionary past and integration of the envelope membranes in cellular functions is the result of this evolution. Plastid envelope membranes contain a wide diversity of lipids and terpenoid compounds serving numerous biochemical functions and the flexibility of their biosynthetic pathways allow plants to adapt to fluctuating environmental conditions (for instance phosphate deprivation). A large body of knowledge has been generated by proteomic studies targeted to envelope membranes, thus revealing an unexpected complexity of this membrane system. For instance, new transport systems for metabolites and ions have been identified in envelope membranes and new routes for the import of chloroplast-specific proteins have been identified. The picture emerging from our present understanding of plastid envelope membranes is that of a key player in plastid biogenesis and the co-ordinated gene expression of plastid-specific protein (owing to chlorophyll precursors), of a major hub for integration of metabolic and ionic networks in cell metabolism, of a flexible system that can divide, produce dynamic extensions and interact with other cell constituents. Envelope membranes are indeed one of the most complex and dynamic system within a plant cell. In this review, we present an overview of envelope constituents together with recent insights into the major functions fulfilled by envelope membranes and their dynamics within plant cells. Special Issue of Photosynthesis Research in honor of Andrew A. Benson.     

An avian equivalent of make-up?

We report that a long-distance migrating shorebird, the red knot, makes a complete switch from commonly occurring monoester preen waxes to a much rarer class of higher-molecular-weight diester waxes at the time of take-off to the high arctic breeding grounds. The cold arctic climate would have required a lowering of wax-viscosity, and thus, a shift in the reverse direction. We propose that a sexually selected need for a brilliant plumage has lead to this conter-intuitive temporary shift from monoesters to diester waxes. The difficulty of application of the diester preen waxes under cold conditions would ensure the reliability of the quality-signalling function of this most probably sexually selected trait.     

西双版纳区域气候变化对植物生长趋势的影响

目前全球变暖已经致使地球上生物群系的格局发生了显著的变化。高纬度地区的植物生长由此变得更加活跃,而热带地区植物生长的趋势仍然是一个具有争论的问题。西双版纳热带植物园地处中国西南地区,20世纪70年代以来,这里气候发生了显著的变化,其气温以每10年0.18℃的速度上升。本研究利用西双版纳热带植物园中的48种热带植物（28科）的株高生长数据（1974～2003年）来分析其对西双版纳区域气候变化的长期变化响应,通过对株高与气候因子的相关分析选出对植物株高生长影响最大的气候因子。结果表明,植物在研究期间的株高生长年间波动比较强烈,但没有表现出明显的趋势;植物的株高生长主要受到干热季（3、4月份）的日照时数（负）与月均最低气温（正）所影响,而干热季正是这些植物每年开始萌叶的时期;另外,降雨并没有对引种植物株高生长产生显著的影响;从2个关键因子的长期变化趋势来看,西双版纳气候变化将有利于保护植物的生长,进而将有利于植物园内热带植物的保护与保存。     

Variation of heartwood and sapwood in 18-year-old Eucalyptus globulus trees grown with different spacings

Heartwood and sapwood development was studied in 18-year-old Eucalyptus globulus trees from pulpwood plantations with different spacings (3 × 2, 3 × 3, 4 × 3, 4 × 4 and 4 × 5 m), on cross-sectional discs taken at breast height. The trees possessed a large proportion of heartwood, on average 60% of the wood cross-sectional surface. Spacing was a statistically significant source of variation of heartwood area, which ranged between 99 and 206 cm² for the closer (3 × 2) and wider (4 × 5) spacings, respectively. There was a positive and high statistical significant correlation between heartwood diameter and tree diameter (heartwood diameter = −0.272 + 0.616 dbh; r ² = 0.77; P < 0.001), and larger trees contained more heartwood regardless of spacing. Heartwood proportion in cross-section remained practically constant between spacings but increased with tree diameter class: 55.1, 62.2, 65.0 and 69.5% for diameter at breast height classes <15, 15–20, 20–25 and >25 cm, respectively. The sapwood width did not depend on tree diameter growth and remained practically constant at an average of 18 mm (range 15–21 mm), but sapwood area showed a good linear regression with tree diameter. Therefore, tree growth enhancement factors, such as wide spacings, will induce formation of larger heartwoods that can negatively impact raw-material quality for pulping. The increase in heartwood in relation with tree dimensions should therefore be taken into account when designing forest management guidelines.     

Restoring lakes by using artificial plant beds: habitat selection of zooplankton in a clear and a turbid shallow lake

1. Return of large‐bodied zooplankton populations is of key importance for creating a shift from a turbid to a clear‐water state in shallow lakes after a nutrient loading reduction. In temperate lakes, recovery is promoted by submerged macrophytes which function as a daytime refuge for large zooplankton. However, recovery of macrophytes is often delayed and use of artificial plant beds (APB) has been suggested as a tool to enhance zooplankton refuges, thereby reinforcing the shift to a clear‐water state and, eventually, colonisation of natural plants. 2. To further evaluate the potential of APB in lake restoration, we followed the day–night habitat choices of zooplankton throughout summer in a clear and a turbid lake. Observations were made in the pelagic and littoral zones and in APB in the littoral representing three different plant densities (coverage 0%, 40% and 80%). 3. In the clear lake, the zooplankton (primarily Daphnia) were mainly found in the pelagic area in spring, but from mid‐May they were particularly abundant in the APB and almost exclusively so in mid‐June and July, where they appeared in extremely high densities during day (up to 2600 ind. L⁻¹). During night Daphnia densities were overall more equally distributed between the five habitats. Ceriodaphnia was proportionally more abundant in the APB during most of the season. Cyclopoids were more abundant in the high APB during day but were equally distributed between the five habitats during night. 4. In the turbid lake, however, no clear aggregation was observed in the APB for either of the pelagic genera (Daphnia and Bosmina). This may reflect a higher refuge effect in the open water due to the higher turbidity, reduced ability to orient to plant beds and a significantly higher fish density (mainly of roach, Rutilus rutilus, and perch, Perca fluviatilis) in the plant beds than in the clear lake. Chydorus was found in much higher proportions among the plants, while cyclopoids, particularly the pelagic Cyclops vicinus, dominated in the pelagic during day and in the pelagic and high density plants during night. 5. Our results suggest that water clarity is decisive for the habitat choice of large‐bodied zooplankton and that introduction of APB as a restoration measure to enhance zooplankton survival is only a useful tool when water clarity increases following loading reduction. Our results indicate that dense APB will be the most efficient.     

SWIMMING SPEEDS OF SINGING AND NON-SINGING HUMPBACK WHALES DURING MIGRATION

Limited data exist on swimming speeds of humpback whales ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) and none on swimming speeds of singing whales during migration. We tracked humpback whales visually and acoustically during migration from the breeding grounds past our study site on the east coast of Australia (latitude 26°28'S). The mean swimming speed for whales while singing was 2.5 km/h, significantly less than for non-singing whales with a mean of 4.0 km/h but significantly greater than the mean of 1.6 km/h observed for singing whales on the Hawaiian breeding grounds. Between song sessions, there was no significant difference in speeds between whales that had been singing and other whales. Migration speeds were less for whales while singing but increased during the season. Although humpback whales can swim rapidly while singing (maximum observed 15.6 km/h), they generally do not do so, even during migration. Slower migration by singers would delay their return to the polar feeding areas and may be costly, but may be a strategy to provide access to more females.