中国青凤蝶变异型初步观察

通过对中国青凤蝶Graphium sarpedon(L.)标本的观察,归纳出6种中国青凤蝶的变异型,提供了各变异型的主要形态特征和彩色照片,并综合大量文献资料对中国青凤蝶的亚种分布进行了探讨。     

中国凤蝶科昆虫地理分布的聚类分析

在对中国凤蝶科昆虫多样性分布统计的基础上,用特有性简约性方法构建中国凤蝶科昆虫的分布区分支图。结果表明,中国凤蝶在8大生物地理分布区中可分成6个聚类群,至少有5次大的隔离分化事件造成了目前我国凤蝶科昆虫的分布格局。分支图显示出东北区与蒙新区比其他分布区形成要早,华南区和西南区的凤蝶多样性最为丰富,推测其原因可能与生态环境等因素有关。     

The effect of host plant on larval survivorship of the Alaskan swallowtail butterfly (Papilio machaon aliaska)

The Alaskan swallowtail butterfly, Papilio machaon aliaska (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), uses three plant species as host plants. Cnidium cnidiifolium (Turcz.) Schischk. belongs to the family Apiaceae, the ancestral host‐plant family of the P. machaon group. Artemisia arctica Less. and Petasites frigidus (L.) Franch, in contrast, belong to the distantly related Asteraceae family and were colonized relatively recently by this group of butterflies. Previous work has shown that larval survival is highest on the novel host plants when natural enemies are present in the field. Here I examine whether P. m. aliaska fitness varied when individuals were reared on the three host plants in a common environment, free of environmental and ecological complications such as predation. I collected 12 P. m. aliaska females and measured their reproductive success when their progeny were reared on each of the three host plants. I assessed larval fitness on each of the hosts by recording the percentage pupation and percentage emergence as well as by measuring pupal mass. I found that larvae reared on the ancestral host plant, C. cnidiifolium, had higher fitness than did larvae reared on either of the novel host plants, A. arctica or P. frigidus. Larvae reared on C. cnidiifolium were more likely to pupate, achieved a greater pupal mass, and had higher emergence rates than larvae reared on the novel hosts. I interpret these results to mean that, in the absence of predation, the ancestral host plant is a better host for P. m. aliaska larvae than either novel host and I contend that this result does not appear to support the hypothesis that P. m. aliaska populations in central Alaska are divided into host races.     

Using hybrid and backcross larvae of Papilio canadensis and Papilio glaucus to detect induced phytochemical resistance in hybrid poplar trees experimentally defoliated by gypsy moths

Sub-plots of hybrid poplars were experimentally defoliated using 10 million gypsy moth larvae. Half of the defoliated (and undefoliated control) plots were fertilized to see if this would ameliorate the predicted induction of carbon-based phenolic defenses in the regrowth leaves. In order to bioassay the leaves of the four different treatments, we employed a continuum of genotypes (different hybrids and backcrosses of two different species of tiger swallowtail butterflies) with different abilities to detoxify these allelochemicals. Based on our previous studies with phytochemicals from the Salicaceae plant family, Papilio canadensis was likely to consume and process all Populus spp treatments, whereas P. glaucus predicted to either not consume or else quickly die on all Populus treatment leaves. Hybrid and backcross larvae of these two butterfly species are known to have intermediate levels of esterase detoxication enzymes and would therefore be likely to provide a continuum or at least varying degrees of sensitivity in bioassays for even the most subtle induction responses in the regrowth leaves. This presumption was supported in the feeding and growth studies conducted at different times post-defoliation during the 1997 growing season in Michigan.     

Six Opsins from the Butterfly Papilio glaucus: Molecular Phylogenetic Evidence for Paralogous Origins of Red-Sensitive Visual Pigments in Insects

It has been hypothesized that the UV-, blue-, and green-sensitive visual pigments of insects were present in the common ancestor of crustaceans and insects, whereas red-sensitive visual pigments evolved later as a result of convergent evolution. This hypothesis is examined with respect to the placement of six opsins from the swallowtail butterfly Papilio glaucus (PglRh1–6) in relationship to 46 other insect, crustacean, and chelicerate opsin sequences. All basal relationships established with maximum parsimony analysis except two are present in the distance and maximum likelihood analyses. In all analyses, the six P. glaucus opsins fall into three well-supported clades, comprised, respectively, of ultraviolet (UV), blue, and long-wavelength (LW) pigments, which appear to predate the radiation of the insects. Lepidopteran green- and red-sensitive visual pigments form a monophyletic clade, which lends support to the hypothesis from comparative physiological studies that red-sensitive visual pigments in insects have paralogous origins. Polymorphic amino acid sites (180, 197, 277, 285, 308), which are essential for generating the spectral diversity among the vertebrate red- and green-sensitive pigments are notably invariant in the Papilio red- and green-sensitive pigments. Other major tuning sites must be sought to explain the spectral diversification among these and other insect visual pigments. Received: 6 December 1999 / Accepted: 3 April 2000     

New evidence on the systematic and phylogenetic position of Parides burchellanus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

Parides burchellanus is considered a rare and threatened swallowtail species restricted to central Brazil. It shows considerable morphological similarity to Parides panthonus jaguarae, with which it shares both geographical range and larval host plant. At present, P. burchellanus and P. panthonus are believed to be distinct species, based on minor differences in male genitalia. In this study, the phylogenetic and systematic position of P. burchellanus in relation to three subspecies of P. panthonus (P. p. jaguarae, P. p. lysimachus and P. p. aglaope) was evaluated using molecular evidence: the complete sequence of the mtDNA genes COI and COII and of the nuclear gene EF‐1α (c. 3300 bp). In addition, the informativeness of the ‘barcode’ region next to the 5′ end of COI (c. 650 bp) was evaluated for delimiting these taxa. Individual analysis by neighbour‐joining, using Kimura 2‐parameter distance model, and by maximum parsimony showed that P. p. jaguarae + P. p. lysimachus + P. p. aglaope + P. burchellanus form a strongly supported monophyletic clade, and all molecular regions consistently recovered P. p. jaguarae and P. burchellanus as sister species. The genetic divergence among the subspecies of P. panthonus and P. burchellanus is equivalent to the divergence among conspecifics of other species of Parides, and smaller than the interspecific divergence among different sister species of this genus. The results support the proposal that P. p. jaguarae and P. burchellanus are likely to be synonymous, and suggest that P. burchellanus can be considered conspecific with P. panthonus. The taxonomic classification of P. burchellanus should be revised on the basis of the molecular data.     

The chemical world of crucivores: lures, treats and traps

Papilio polytes utilizes only a few plant species of Rutaceae as hosts in the field. We examined in detail the acceptability of Toddalia asiatica (a major host plant) and three other potential rutaceous hosts, Murraya paniculata, Melicope triphylla, and Phellodendron amurense, for ovipositing females of the butterfly. Female responses to the foliage, methanol extracts, and partitioned fractions from these plants were assayed for the presence of oviposition stimulants and/or deterrents. Larval survivorship on these plant species was also compared as an estimate of fitness. The foliage and a methanol extract of T. asiatica readily induced egg-laying, while females responded moderately to the foliage and a methanol extract of P. amurense. By contrast, ovipositing females only marginally accepted Me. triphylla and completely rejected Mu. paniculata. Further experiments to test the biological activity of fractions derived from the respective plant species revealed that T. asiatica contains potent oviposition stimulant(s) and that weak stimulant(s) are present in P. amurense. Poor or negative oviposition responses to both Me. triphylla and Mu. paniculata proved to be attributable to strong deterrent(s) present in these plants. Larvae performed very well on T. asiatica and P. amurense, whereas larval mortality was much higher on Mu. paniculata and Me. triphylla, suggesting the involvement of antifeedant(s) or toxic substance(s) in these plants.     

Tyramine from the leaves of wild parsnip: a stimulant and synergist for oviposition by the black swallowtail butterfly

Abstract .Oviposition stimulants from the foliage of wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa (Apiaceae), were isolated by column chromatography and HPLC and tested in bioassay experiments with hand-held female black swallowtail butterflies, Papilio polyxenes (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae). Two of the stimulants were identified as tyramine and trans -chlorogenic acid. A combination of tyramine, trans -chlorogenic acid and an active neutral fraction was needed to elicit a significant oviposition response. These results are discussed in the context of previous research on the oviposition stimulants of swallowtail butterflies and on the significance of tyramine as a neuromodulator of physiological processes in invertebrates.     

Between-clutch interactions affect a benefit of group feeding for pipevine swallowtail larvae

Abstract.  1. In California, early instar larvae of the pipevine swallowtail ( Battus philenor ) develop at an accelerated rate when feeding in large groups compared with small groups due to a plant-mediated response to feeding group size. Larvae benefit from accelerated growth because the time larvae remain in early stages, where mortality is highest, is reduced. Occasionally, multiple clutches are laid on the same plant stem. Clutch size modification by females ovipositing on plant with previously laid clutches and the effect of kinship and group size on larval behaviour was examined. The direct and indirect interactions between clutches were investigated to determine if group size and time between clutch establishment affects the performance of early instar larvae.
2. Larger groups consume the young foliage more quickly and develop at an accelerated rate compared with smaller groups. Older foliage available to later clutches is an inferior food resource compared with younger foliage.
3. There was no evidence that females adjust clutch size in response to the presence of conspecific clutches.
4. Second groups of larvae readily joined previously established feeding groups. There were no observed behavioural differences between sibling and mixed-family groups.
5. The effect of a second group on the growth of the initial group was dependent on the size of both groups and the time interval between the arrival of the two groups.
6. Accelerated growth associated with larger feeding aggregations was absent when these groups were introduced to plants with previously established groups.
7. It is beneficial for ovipositing females to avoid plants with previously laid clutches because direct and indirect interactions with established clutches compromises larval performance.     

Differential effects of short term winter thermal stress on diapausing tiger swallowtail butterflies (Papilio spp.)

Abstract It is generally thought that insects inhabiting lower latitudes are more severely impacted by changes in their thermal environment than are high latitude species. This is attributed to the wider range of temperatures to which high‐latitude species are exposed. By contrast, low‐latitude species have typically evolved in more thermally stable environments with a narrower range of temperature variation. However, deviation from this pattern can occur and here we report that under variable winter conditions a higher latitude species may be more sensitive to thermal variation than its lower latitude sister species. Using split broods, we examined the survival and adult emergence success of diapausing pupae of Papilio canadensis and P. glaucus, as well as a unique, recombinant hybrid population (“late‐flight”) to short periods of mid‐winter cold and heat stress. Our results indicate that the higher latitude, univoltine populations (P. canadensis and late‐flights) exhibit lower pupal survival than the lower latitude, facultative diapauser (P. glaucus) for all mid‐winter thermal stress treatments, both high and low. Size differences alone do not appear to account for the observed differences in survival or metabolic costs in these three phenotypes, as late‐flight individuals are similar in size to P. glaucus. We attribute the observed differences in survival and weight loss to potential metabolic differences and variation in the intensity of diapause, in addition to divergent adaptation to winter precipitation levels (e.g. snow cover) and the influences this may have on microhabitat temperature moderation.