Fine‐scale ecological and anthropogenic variables predict the habitat use and detectability of sloth bears in the Churia habitat of east Nepal

Once widespread throughout the tropical forests of the Indian Subcontinent, the sloth bears have suffered a rapid range collapse and local extirpations in the recent decades. A significant portion of their current distribution range is situated outside of the protected areas (PAs). These unprotected sloth bear populations are under tremendous human pressures, but little is known about the patterns and determinants of their occurrence in most of these regions. The situation is more prevalent in Nepal where virtually no systematic information is available for sloth bears living outside of the PAs. We undertook a spatially replicated sign survey‐based single‐season occupancy study intending to overcome this information gap for the sloth bear populations residing in the Trijuga forest of southeast Nepal. Sloth bear sign detection histories and field‐based covariates data were collected between 2 October and 3 December 2020 at the 74 randomly chosen 4‐km² grid cells. From our results, the model‐averaged site use probability (ψ ± SE) was estimated to be 0.432 ± 0.039, which is a 13% increase from the naïve estimate (0.297) not accounting for imperfect detections of sloth bear signs. The presence of termite mound and the distance to the nearest water source were the most important variables affecting the habitat use probability of sloth bears. The average site‐level detectability (p ± SE) of sloth bear signs was estimated to be 0.195 ± 0.003 and was significantly determined by the index of human disturbances. We recommend considering the importance of fine‐scale ecological and anthropogenic factors in predicting the sloth bear‐habitat relationships across their range in the Churia habitat of Nepal, and more specifically in the unprotected areas.     

Habitat occupancy of sloth bear Melursus ursinus in Chitwan National Park,Nepal

Mammals have experienced a massive decline in their populations and geographic ranges worldwide. The sloth bear, Melursus ursinus (Shaw, 1791), is one of many species facing conservation threats. Despite being endangered in Nepal, decades of inattention to the situation have hindered their conservation and management. We assessed the distribution and patterns of habitat use by sloth bears in Chitwan National Park (CNP), Nepal. We conducted sign surveys from March to June, 2020, in 4 × 4 km grids (n = 45). We collected detection/non‐detection data along a 4‐km trail that was divided into 20 continuous segments of 200 m each. We obtained environmental, ecological, and anthropogenic covariates to understand determinants of sloth bear habitat occupancy. The data were analyzed using the single‐species single‐season occupancy method, with a spatially correlated detection. Using repeated observations, these models accounted for the imperfect detectability of the species to provide robust estimates of habitat occupancy. The model‐averaged occupancy estimate for the sloth bear was 69% and the detection probability was 0.25. The probability of habitat occupancy by sloth bears increased with the presence of termites and fruits and in rugged, dry, open, undisturbed habitats. Our results indicate that the sloth bear is elusive, functionally unique, and widespread in CNP. Future conservation interventions and action plans aimed at sloth bear management must adequately consider their habitat requirements.     

Grazing Lawns in Terai Grasslands,Royal Bardia National Park,Nepal1

We compared the community structure, nutritive quality, and aboveground biomass of grazing lawns (patches of shortgrass communities) to neighboring grasslands in the Terai of western Nepal. Grazing lawns differed from the adjacent grasslands in species composition and community structure. Species diversity and species richness were higher on grazing lawns (H = 1.60, S = 20.93) than the grasslands (H = 0.97, S = 8.97). Fencing that excluded grazers for 150 days made areas of grazing lawns indistinguishable from neighboring grasslands in terms of plant height and biomass. Growing shoots of forage from grazing lawns had higher digestibility, crude protein, and sodium than forage from the grasslands. Grazing lawns appear to be maintained by continuous grazing and are enriched by deposition of urine, dung, and by certain plant species not found in the the adjacent grasslands.     

Some studies on the ecology of limnetic crustacean zooplankton in Lake Begnas and Rupa,Pokhara Valley,Nepal

Monthly zooplankton samples taken during the period February, 1977 to February, 1978 in the deepest portion in two shallow sub-tropical Lakes, Begnas and Rupa in the Pokhara Valley, Nepal were studied. Four peaks of zooplankton abundance were noted. Adult and copepodid Copepoda were numerically dominant in both lakes with 56% Copepoda, 24% Cladocera and 20% nauplii in Lake Begnas and 48% Copepoda, 36% Cladocera and 16% nauplii in Lake Rupa. Other forms like Chaoborus larvae occurred sporadically in both lakes. An occurrence of the rare Limnocnida nepalensis (Coelenterata: Limnomedusae) in Lake Rupa was also noted during April and May, 1977. Although both of these lakes had already been ranked as eutrophic, the absence of calanoids, relative abundance of Bosmina longirostris and higher gross primary production in Lake Rupa is an indication of a higher trophic condition than that of Lake Begnas.     

From zomo to yak: Change in a Sherpa village

Transhumant herding of cow-yak hybrids is a specialization of Helambu Sherpa villagers living at altitudes between 7,000– 11,000 feet on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Hybrids are ideally suited for the climate at this altitude, producing large quantities of rich milk for butter production. Focused on a village in east- central Nepal, this paper documents a shift by some families between 1971– 1989 from the longstanding pattern of herding hybrids to an alternative pattern of producing them. This involves learning to manage yak, establishing new transhumance routes, a switch from dairying to livestock production, and a variety of economic, environmental, and social repercussions. The two types of herding systems are described, and possible causes for the shift are discussed within the context of the economic options available to people in this environment. A special emphasis is placed on the flexibility of options that is both necessary and possible with transhumant agropastoralism as practiced by middle and high-altitude Himalayan peoples.     

How does a re-colonizing population of Asian elephants affect the forest habitat?

The Asian elephant Elephas maximus is currently re-colonizing the Bardia National Park in lowland Nepal. We studied their impact on woody vegetation in the nutrient-rich floodplain and in the relatively nutrient-poor sal forest. The types and extent of tree impact were recorded along fixed-width transects (335 km). Species composition, density and size classes ≥8 cm diameter breast height (dbh) were recorded in 15-m radius random plots ( n =95). Impact was higher in the floodplain complex than in the sal-dominated forest. Our hypothesis that elephants were more selective on species in the nutrient-poor sal forest was only partly supported; the niche breadth of impacted trees was slightly higher in the floodplain complex. Pushed-over trees accounted for the highest proportion of impact (55%), followed by killed trees (39%). Of the pushed trees, 10% were not used for food. Among food trees, elephants selectively impacted size class 12–16 cm dbh, whereas non-food trees were impacted independently of size. A large proportion of the freshly browsed trees had been felled previously, indicating that most felled trees survived, enabling elephants to feed on them again. This may reflect an evolutionary adaptation among long-lived species with high site fidelity. Owing to preferential use but low abundance, two species in sal forest, Grewia spp. and Desmodium oojeinense , were found to be particularly vulnerable to local extinction due to elephants. Although the elephants had impacted a large number of species (62, 73% of all), 56.4% of the impacted trees consisted of Mallotus phillippinensis . A recently observed increase in the density of M. phillippinensis and the concurrent reduction of the hardly utilized Shorea robusta indicates that the rapidly growing elephant population may modify the composition of the forest by increasing its preferred food species.     

Hemoglobin levels in a Himalayan high altitude population

This report presents data on hemoglobin concentrations in a sample of Himalayan high altitude natives measured at their habitual altitude of residence. In this sample of 270 healthy Tibetan adults resident at 3250–3560 m in Upper Chumik, Nepal, the mean hemoglobin concentration is 16.1 ± 1.2 gm/dl among adult males, 14.4 ± 1.4 gm/dl among premenopausal and 15.0 ± 1.1 gm/dl among postmenopausal adult females. 123 of 126 (98%) males, 96 of 100 (96%) premenopausal and 36 of 44 (82%) postmenopausal females have hemoglobin concentrations within two standard deviations of the sea level mean. These data demonstrate that a healthy population may reside at high altitude without the degree of elevation in hemoglobin widely known and cited for Andean highlanders. Comparing published data on mean hemoglobin concentrations of adult Himalayan and Andean samples residing between 3200 m and 4100 m reveals that Himalayan means are systematically lower. This in turn may account for the reported population differences in the prevalence of chronic mountain sickness (Monge's disease). It is hypothesized that Himalayan and Andean highlanders represent alternative patterns of high altitude hematological adaptation.     

Neglect of biological riches: the economics of nature tourism in Nepal

Nepal's spectacular parks and reserves have attracted dramatically increasing numbers of foreign visitors. It might be expected that these protected areas would be nurtured as valuable and irreplaceable economic assets. However they are becoming seriously degraded and the financial resources provided for their management have been inadequate. This paper explores why — starting with the hypothesis that so little of the economic value of protected area tourism in Nepal is captured through fees and other charges assessed on foreign visitors that the protected areas are perceived as being of inconsequential value. It is conservatively estimated that $27 million of tourists' total expenditure in Nepal were attributable to the protected area network in 1988, when the costs of managing the parks were less than $5 million but direct fees colleeted from tourists visiting the protected areas amounted to less than $1 million. These figures suggest the parks are a good investment. But it could also be argued that the costs of park management were more than five times the revenues collected by the government from park tourists. Policy measures are identified which could help Nepal increase the economic as well as environmental benefits from nature tourism.Case studies of Nepal's most-visited protected areas emphasize that the lack of funds for protected area management is not the only constraint on effective management. Some important economic and institutional interests have yet to be effectively reconciled with conservation in the protected areas. Most problematic are local people's economic aspirations and the operating practices of the principal government agencies involved — the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation and the Ministry of Tourism. Fortunately there have recently been some encouraging signs of change within both of these agencies.     

Land,livestock, and livelihoods: Changing dynamics of gender,caste, and ethnicity in a Nepalese Village

Over the past 10 years, Ghusel VDC, Lalitpur District has moved from primarily subsistence agriculture into the wider cash economy aided by the Small Farmers' Development Program (SFDP), which provides credit to farmers mainly for the purchase of buffalo for milk production, and by the National Dairy Corporation, which supports local dairy cooperatives. Analysis reveals that buffalo-keeping and milk sales are increasing the well-being of many households, while at the same time creating new inequalities in gender roles and responsibilities, greater inequities between Brahmin and Tamang residents in Ghusel, and placing pressures on the ecosystem for increased supplies of fodder and fuelwood. Evidence suggests that there is critical, need for attention to the social, and particularly gender-based, implications of maintaining livestock for milk sales and to the ecological underpinnings of this livelihood system.     

Report on a collection of cladocera and copepoda from Nepal

22 species of Cladocera and 14 species of Copepoda are reported, mainly from Kathmandu valley, Central Nepal and some from high-altitude lakes in the Khumbu area, East Nepal. Two species are new to science; neither can, however, be named due to inadequate material. The relation between Macrothrix laticornis (Jurine, 1820), M. spinosa King, 1853 and M. goeldii Richard, 1897 is discussed; M. goeldii is set as synonym to M. spinosa; new morphological criteria, permetting a separation to M. laticornis and M. spinosa, are given. Some biogeographical aspects of the fauna encountered are: 1) among Copepoda two calanoïds of oriental origin and one of supposed palaearctic origin reach Kathmandu valley; all other Copepoda are circumtropical or cosmopolite species; no oriental Cyclopoïda were found; 2) at higher altitudes, no Cyclopoïda were found, and the Calanoïda were endemic species of the palaearctic genus Arctodiaptomus; 3) no oriental Cladocera were found in Kathmandu valley; the majority of species were cosmopolitan, the remainder circumtropical; 4) at high altitudes, endemic species of palaearctic genera exist next to a set of cosmopolitans.Contribution no 21 from the Netherlands Centre for Alpine Biological Research