Review of the genus Hippidion Owen, 1869 (Mammalia: Perissodactyla) from the Pleistocene of South America

This review of Hippidion is based on a multivariate analysis of the foot, and some morphological characteristics of the skull and dentition. We recognize only one genus ( Hippidion ) including all the hippidiform horses, with three different species: H. principale, H. devillei and H. saldiasi. The latter species is stratigraphically and geographically restricted to the period from 13000 to 8000 years BP in the southern part of South America. Hippidion principale and H. devillei have a large geographical distribution (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Perú, Uruguay, Brazil) through the Upper Pliocene-Upper Pleistocene. Both species show some morphometric variations across their geographic range; these features may result from the environmental characteristics.     

PEAK SHIFTS AND POLYMORPHISM DURING PHASE THREE OF WRIGHT'S SHIFTING-BALANCE PROCESS

The third phase of Wright's shifting-balance theory involves the export of adaptive gene combinations from one subpopulation to another. Previous results have demonstrated that this can occur at very low migration rates, but it has been argued that this simply reflects the ability of migration to overcome selection and fix any (even deleterious) alleles. Here, previous analyses are extended by concentrating on the critical balance between forward and reverse migration rates that still allows phase III to proceed. It is shown that selective advantage, dominance, recombination rate, and the number of loci all affect the ability of a genotype to invade and become fixed in a new subpopulation, but it is unlikely that phase III will occur in the absence of differential migration unless the invading genotype consists of a few dominant loci with a large selection advantage, spreading into a few populations of lower fitness. Therefore, as was envisioned by Wright, differential migration from more to less fit populations will be necessary for phase III to occur under most circumstances.     

Seed development in Pisum

The Ih and lh _i alleles have been shown previously to reduce the level of endogenous gibberellin A₁ (GA₁) in shoots of pea (Pisum sativum L.), resulting in a dwarf phenotype compared with the wild type, cv. Torsdag (Lh). In addition, plants homozygous for the lh ⁱ allele have reduced seed yield compared with Lh (tall, wild type) and lh (dwarf) plants. In this paper we show that the lh ⁱ mutation is expressed in developing seeds and pods. Comparison of GA levels in young shoots and developing seeds of genotypes lh and lh ⁱ demonstrates that the relative severity of the two mutations varies in different tissues. Homozygous h ⁱ seeds have reduced GA levels, weigh less, and are less likely to develop to maturity when compared with Lh seeds. However, fertilization of lh ⁱ plants with Lh pollen increases seed GA levels, seed weight and seed survival, indicating that an increase in seed GA levels due to the presence of the Lh allele can restore normal seed growth. Pods developing on self-pollinated lh ⁱ plants are shorter than pods on Lh (wild type) plants, although this may be an indirect effect of the increased seed abortion of lh _i plants. Based on these results we suggest that endogenous GAs play an important role in the development of seeds of P. sativum L.Abbreviations GA_(n) gibberellin A_n We wish to thank Katherine McPherson, Peter Newman, Leigh Johnson and Peter Bobbi for technical assistance, Professor L. Mander (ANU, Canberra) and Professor B.O. Phinney (UCLA, USA) for labelled GA standards, and the Australian Research Council for financial support.     

Female reproductive fluid concentrations affect sperm performance of alternative male phenotypes in an external fertilizer

There is growing evidence that the female reproductive fluid (FRF) plays an important role in cryptic female choice through its differential effect on the performance of sperm from different males. In a natural spawning event, the male(s) may release ejaculate closer or further away from the spawning female. If the relative spatial proximity of competing males reflects the female pre-mating preference towards those males, then favoured males will encounter higher concentrations of FRF than unpreferred males. Despite this being a common situation in many external fertilizers, whether different concentrations of FRF can differentially influence the sperm performance of distinct male phenotypes (favoured and unfavoured by the female) remains to be elucidated. Here, we tested this hypothesis using the grass goby (Zosterisessor ophiocephalus), a fish with distinct territorial-sneaker reproductive tactics and female pre-mating preference towards territorial males, that consequently mate in an advantaged position and whose sperm experience higher concentrations of FRF. Our findings revealed a differential concentration-dependent effect of FRF over sneaker and territorial sperm motility only at low concentrations (i.e. at the distance where sneakers typically ejaculate), with increasing FRF concentrations (i.e. close to the eggs) similarly boosting the sperm performance of both sneaker and territorial males. The ability to release sperm close to the eggs is a prerogative of territorials, but FRF can likewise advantage the sperm of those sneakers that are able to get closer, allowing flexibility in the direction of female post-mating choice.     

Mutual support and selection between branches of damaged plants

Snow (1931) showed that the fate of a branch of a plant that had suffered local herbivory could be determined by correlative effects of other branches. This neglected work was continued in the current study, herbivory being simulated by the removal of leaves of different ages from pea plants with two branches. A damaged branch was suppressed when an undamaged alternative branch was present; otherwise the damage never prevented continued development. The removal of mature leaves had a smaller effect than the removal of immature, expanding leaves. When leaves were removed from both branches it was the branches that suffered less damage to their immature leaves that continued shoot development. Branches from which all photosynthetic leaves were repeatedly removed developed only when they retained their immature leaves and remained dominant, inhibiting the development — but not the photosynthesis — of the other branch on the same plant. Accounting for these results requires mechanisms that compare the different branches of the plant and select for development the ones that have the greatest potential for future, rather than present, photosynthesis. It is concluded that a compartmentalized or sectorial distribution of essential substrates can be modified by correlative relations that are probably mediated by hormones.     

Integrating conservation and development: incorporating vulnerability into biodiversity-assessment of areas

Protection of regional biodiversity requires that priority for protection of individual areas be based on both the contribution the area can make to representing overall biodiversity and the degree to which the area, in the absence of action, is vulnerable to loss of its biodiversity. Attempts to apply these criteria together largely have been ad hoc. A solution to this problem is presented for environmental surrogate data, based on environmental diversity (ED). ED uses a standard ecological continuum model to link environmental pattern to species-level biodiversity, so that a set of areas can be characterized by its relative expected biodiversity. This allows explicit incorporation of estimates of area-vulnerability, interpreted as the relative probability that any member species will not persist, into biodiversity assessments. The contribution of a given area to regional expected biodiversity is influenced not only by its own vulnerability value, but also by the vulnerability of other areas. Increasing the degree of protection of any area (reducing its vulnerability) will increase expected biodiversity: however, expected regional biodiversity sometimes may be maximized when limited resources for protection are directed to an area with lower vulnerability rather than to one with higher vulnerability.The allocation of land uses in a region need not be viewed as an all-or-nothing assignment of protection. The effect of a particular management regime on the biodiversity of a given area can be equated with some consequent degree of vulnerability; viewed positively, a management regime that offers some degree of biodiversity protection can make a measurable contribution to the protection of the biodiversity of a region.     

Maximum-likelihood models for mapping genetic markers showing segregation distortion. 2. F2 populations

In F₂ populations, gametic and zygotic selection may affect the analysis of linkage in different ways. Therefore, specific likelihood equations have to be developed for each case, including dominant and codominant markers. The asymptotic bias of the classical estimates are derived for each case, in order to compare them with the standard errors of the suggested estimates. We discuss the utility and the efficiency of a previous model developed for dominant markers. We show that dominant markers provide very poor information in the case of segregation distortion and, therefore, should be used with circumspection. On the other hand, the estimation of recombination fractions between codominant markers is less affected by selection than is that for dominant markers. We also discuss the analysis of linkage between dominant and codominant markers.     

The adaptive significance of colour pattern polymorphism in the Australian scincid lizard Lampropholis delicata

Females of Lampropholis delicata are dimorphic for colour pattern, the difference between morphs being the presence or absence of a distinct white mid-lateral stripe. A less distinct striped morph occurs also in males. We evaluated alternative hypotheses for the maintenance of this polymorphism by examining temporal and spatial variation in morph frequency, testing for differential selection among morphs using data on body size and reproductive traits from preserved specimens, and experimentally manipulating colour pattern in free-ranging lizards of both sexes, to assess the influence of the lateral stripe on survival rates. We found that the relative frequency of striped individuals varied among populations and decreased from north to south in both sexes, coincident with an increasing incidence of regenerated tails. Morph frequencies did not change through time within a population. Striped gravid females appeared to survive better and produced larger clutches than did non-striped females. In our experimental study, the relationship between survival and colour morph differed between the two sexes; males painted with a white lateral stripe had lower survival than control (brown stripe) males, but survival did not differ between striped and control females. The different response in the two sexes may be due partly to differences in temperature and microhabitat selection. We propose that the white lateral stripe decreases susceptibility to predators in gravid females but increases risk of predation in males, especially in combination with low temperatures. The polymorphism might be maintained by: (1) opposing fitness consequences of the stripe in males and females; (2) sex-specific habitat selection; and (3) gene flow in combination with spatial variation in relative fitness of the two morphs.     

Decrease in tolerance to fenvalerate, in resistantHelicoverpa armigera after pupal diapause

Pyrethroid resistant and susceptible adults ofHelicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) were screened for tolerance to pyrethroids after 6 wk or 12 wk pupal diapuse. Resistant larvae and F₂ larvae from a cross between resistant and susceptible parents (two replicates), were reared under conditions to induce pupal diapause. After eclosion, adults were tested in glass vials coated with the pyrethroid fenvalerate, at a dose (DD) that is known to discriminate between susceptible and heterozygous resistant individuals. In all diapause experiments, the frequency of resistance was lower in the test groups that had experienced diapause compared with the non-diapausing control group. The underlying cause of the decline is not certain but selective mortality of resistant versus susceptible individuals could not account for all the difference in two of the three experiments — tolerance to the pyrethroid, fenvalerate, is most likely to have declined either as a consequence of diapause or from the extended time of development associated with diapause. These results indicate that monitoring programs could underestimate pyrethroid resistance frequencies when usingH. armigera adults emerging from diapause.     

Feeding behaviour of Cerastoderma edule in a turbid environment: physiological adaptations and derived benefit

Resuspension of bottom sediments by wind andtide-driven currents often occur in shallow waters,coastal embayments and estuaries. These processes maylead to dramatic variations in the concentration andorganic richness of suspended particle assemblages.Since resuspended matter is mainly inorganic,decreasing organic contents are usually associatedwith higher seston loads.Under this environmental context the feeding behaviourof bivalves shows a wide degree of plasticity, whichhas been interpreted as having high adaptive value. Inorder to evaluate benefits derived from thisbehaviour, we have used functional relationshipsobtained in previous studies, relating feedingparameters to characteristics of suspended food, topredict the effect that different feeding responseswould have exerted. In cockles, main processesdetermining energy acquisition are feeding rates andpreingestive food selection. Thus, the procedurefollowed in the present work consisted of simulatingrates of food absorption under alternative feedingbehaviours characterised by: (a) no preferentialingestion of filtered organic matter and (b) maintenance ofconstant clearance rates. In theabsence of selection of organic matter at thepreingestive level, ingestion rate of organics (OIR)would decline with increasing seston loads to 30% ofvalues predicted by functions fitted to experimentaldata; difference in absorption rate (AR) would be evengreater, falling to 10%, due to the strong effectthat the organic content of ingested matter exerts onabsorption efficiency. On the other hand, had theclearance rate (CR) kept constant despite theincreasing seston load, OIR and AR would have fallento values respectively 30% and 49% lower than actualvalues.From these results it is concluded that the ability ofsorting particles before ingestion and the capabilityof adjusting clearance rate are key elements in thefeeding behaviour that enable cockles to be welladapted to cope with changes in the water columncaused by resuspension events.