线粒体自噬的研究进展

线粒体自噬(mitophagy)是指细胞通过自噬机制选择性清除多余或损伤线粒体的过程,对于线粒体质量控制以及细胞生存具有重要作用。在线粒体自噬的过程中,线粒体自噬受体FUNDCl、Nix、BNIP3,接头蛋白OPTN、NDP52以及去泛素化酶UPS30、UPS8等发挥了重要的调控作用。近年来,研究发现线粒体自噬与神经退行性疾病、脑损伤以及胶质瘤相关。因此,研究线粒体自噬的分子机制具有重要意义。本文就与哺乳动物相关的线粒体自噬分子机制及最新研究进展做一综述。     

Cardiac and skeletal muscle defects in a mouse model of human Barth syndrome

Barth syndrome is an X-linked genetic disorder caused by mutations in the tafazzin (taz) gene and characterized by dilated cardiomyopathy, exercise intolerance, chronic fatigue, delayed growth, and neutropenia. Tafazzin is a mitochondrial transacylase required for cardiolipin remodeling. Although tafazzin function has been studied in non-mammalian model organisms, mammalian genetic loss of function approaches have not been used. We examined the consequences of tafazzin knockdown on sarcomeric mitochondria and cardiac function in mice. Tafazzin knockdown resulted in a dramatic decrease of tetralinoleoyl cardiolipin in cardiac and skeletal muscles and accumulation of monolysocardiolipins and cardiolipin molecular species with aberrant acyl groups. Electron microscopy revealed pathological changes in mitochondria, myofibrils, and mitochondrion-associated membranes in skeletal and cardiac muscles. Echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging revealed severe cardiac abnormalities, including left ventricular dilation, left ventricular mass reduction, and depression of fractional shortening and ejection fraction in tafazzin-deficient mice. Tafazzin knockdown mice provide the first mammalian model system for Barth syndrome in which the pathophysiological relationships between altered content of mitochondrial phospholipids, ultrastructural abnormalities, myocardial and mitochondrial dysfunction, and clinical outcome can be completely investigated.     

Microtubule-associated protein 1S (MAP1S) bridges autophagic components with microtubules and mitochondria to affect autophagosomal biogenesis and degradation

The ubiquitously distributed MAP1S is a homologue of the exclusively neuronal distributed microtubule-associated protein 1A and 1B (MAP1A/B). They give rise to multiple isoforms through similar post-translational modification. Isoforms of MAP1S have been implicated in microtubule dynamics and mitotic abnormalities and mitotic cell death. Here we show that ablation of the Map1s gene in mice caused reduction in the B-cell CLL/lymphoma 2 or xL (Bcl-2/xL) and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1B (P27) protein levels, accumulation of defective mitochondria, and severe defects in response to nutritive stress, suggesting defects in autophagosomal biogenesis and clearance. Furthermore, MAP1S isoforms interacted with the autophagosome-associated light chain 3 of MAP1A/B (LC3), a homologue of yeast autophagy-related gene 8 (ATG8), and recruited it to stable microtubules in a MAP1S and LC3 isoform-dependent mode. In addition, MAP1S interacted with mitochondrion-associated leucine-rich PPR-motif containing protein (LRPPRC) that interacts with the mitophagy initiator and Parkinson disease-related protein Parkin. The three-way interactions of MAP1S isoforms with LC3 and microtubules as well as the interaction of MAP1S with LRPPRC suggest that MAP1S isoforms may play positive roles in integration of autophagic components with microtubules and mitochondria in both autophagosomal biogenesis and degradation. For the first time, our results clarify roles of MAP1S in bridging microtubules and mitochondria with autophagic and mitophagic initiation, maturation, trafficking, and lysosomal clearance. Defects in the MAP1S-regulated autophagy may impact heart disease, cancers, neurodegenerative diseases, and a wide range of other diseases.     

MicroRNA-137 Is a Novel Hypoxia-responsive MicroRNA That Inhibits Mitophagy via Regulation of Two Mitophagy Receptors FUNDC1 and NIX

Mitophagy receptors mediate the selective recognition and targeting of damaged mitochondria by autophagosomes. The mechanism for the regulation of these receptors remains unknown. Here, we demonstrated that a novel hypoxia-responsive microRNA, microRNA-137 (miR-137), markedly inhibits mitochondrial degradation by autophagy without affecting global autophagy. miR-137 targets the expression of two mitophagy receptors NIX and FUNDC1. Impaired mitophagy in response to hypoxia caused by miR-137 is reversed by re-expression of FUNDC1 and NIX expression vectors lacking the miR-137 recognition sites at their 3′ UTR. Conversely, miR-137 also suppresses the mitophagy induced by fundc1 (CDS+3′UTR) but not fundc1 (CDS) overexpression. Finally, we found that miR-137 inhibits mitophagy by reducing the expression of the mitophagy receptor thereby leads to inadequate interaction between mitophagy receptor and LC3. Our results demonstrated the regulatory role of miRNA to mitophagy receptors and revealed a novel link between miR-137 and mitophagy.     

弱精子症精子中miRNAs特异表达及潜在致病靶点的分析

摘要 目的：弱精子症可见于40%的不育男性,其特征是精子活力低下。微小RNA（MicroRNAs,miRNAs）在精子发生中发挥重要作用,但关于精子中miRNAs在弱精子症中的作用知之甚少。本研究试图初探miRNAs在弱精子症的分子机制。方法：收集了重度弱精子症患者和健康男性的精子样本,采用高通量序列技术来识别差异表达的miRNAs,并对差异显著的miRNAs进行生物信息学分析。通过qRT-PCR 证实了2个特异性改变的 miRNA及其靶基因表达情况。结果：重度弱精子症患者与正常男性相比,共有146 个miRNAs（P＜0.05; |log2 Fold Change|＞1）发生改变,其中表达上调的52个,下调的94个;预测上下调幅度最显著的前10个miRNAs 的靶基因,同时在miRDB和TargetScan 数据库存在的靶基因共有1407个。富集分析结果显示,miRNAs的靶基因富集于精子细胞的生物过程,还参与精子细胞的氧化代谢、刺激反应、增殖和分化以及凋亡等生物过程。通路分析显示,靶基因可能参与细胞自噬、细胞衰老、PI3K-Akt信号通路、MAPK信号通路、HIF-1信号通路、mTOR信号通路等。其中,在弱精子症精子中特异性上调的hsa-miR-371a-5p和hsa-miR-2355-5p,预测靶基因分别为自噬效应蛋白Beclin1和线粒体内膜蛋白抑素2（prohibitin2,PHB2）,二者直接参与线粒体自噬过程。qRT-PCR结果显示随着精子活力的降低,精子中hsa-miR-371a-5p和hsa-miR-2355-5p的表达量升高。结论：本研究发现弱精子症患者精子中特异性失调的miRNAs及其靶基因,为后续深入研究低活力精子中miRNAs参与调控线粒体自噬功能的机制提供新思路和理论依据。     

Regulation of autophagy and mitophagy by nutrient availability and acetylation

Normal cellular function is dependent on a number of highly regulated homeostatic mechanisms, which act in concert to maintain conditions suitable for life. During periods of nutritional deficit, cells initiate a number of recycling programs which break down complex intracellular structures, thus allowing them to utilize the energy stored within. These recycling systems, broadly named “autophagy”, enable the cell to maintain the flow of nutritional substrates until they can be replenished from external sources. Recent research has shown that a number of regulatory components of the autophagy program are controlled by lysine acetylation. Lysine acetylation is a reversible post-translational modification that can alter the activity of enzymes in a number of cellular compartments. Strikingly, the main substrate for this modification is a product of cellular energy metabolism: acetyl-CoA. This suggests a direct and intricate link between fuel metabolites and the systems which regulate nutritional homeostasis. In this review, we examine how acetylation regulates the systems that control cellular autophagy, and how global protein acetylation status may act as a trigger for recycling of cellular components in a nutrient-dependent fashion. In particular, we focus on how acetylation may control the degradation and turnover of mitochondria, the major source of fuel-derived acetyl-CoA.     

Novel highly selective inhibitors of ubiquitin specific protease 30 (USP30) accelerate mitophagy

Mitophagy is one of the processes that cells use to maintain overall health. An E3 ligase, parkin, ubiquitinates mitochondrial proteins prior to their degradation by autophagasomes. USP30 is an enzyme that de-ubiquitinates mitochondrial proteins; therefore, inhibiting this enzyme could foster mitophagy. Herein, we disclose the structure–activity relationships (SAR) within a novel series of highly selective USP30 inhibitors. Two structurally similar compounds, MF-094 (a potent and selective USP30 inhibitor) and MF-095 (a significantly less potent USP30 inhibitor), serve as useful controls for biological evaluation. We show that MF-094 increases protein ubiquitination and accelerates mitophagy.     

Regulation by mitophagy

Eukaryotes employ elaborate mitochondrial quality control to maintain the function of the power-generating organelle. Mitochondrial quality control is particularly important for the maintenance of neural and muscular tissues. Mitophagy is specialized version of the autophagy pathway. Mitophagy delivers damaged mitochondria to lysosomes for degradation. Recently, a series of elegant studies have demonstrated that two Parkinson's disease-associated genes PINK1 and parkin are involved in the maintenance of healthy mitochondria as mitophagy. Parkin in co-operation with PINK1 specifically recognizes damaged mitochondria with reduced mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm), rapidly isolates them from the mitochondrial network and eliminates them through the ubiquitin–proteasome and autophagy pathways. Here we introduce and review recent studies that contribute to understanding the molecular mechanisms of mitophagy such as PINK1 and Parkin-mediated mitochondrial regulation. We also discuss how defects in the PINK1–Parkin pathway may cause neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease.     

PTEN-L puts a brake on mitophagy

Mitophagy is a main type of selective autophagy, via which damaged mitochondria are selectively degraded via the autophagic pathway. The protein kinase PINK1 and E3 ubiquitin ligase PRKN are the most well studied regulators of mitophagy, via a feedforward mechanism involving ubiquitin phosphorylation (p-Ser65-Ub) and accumulation at the damaged mitochondria. However, it is unknown whether there is a protein phosphatase against PINK1-mediated phosphorylation of ubiquitin. We recently reported that PTEN-L, a newly identified PTEN isoform, is a novel negative regulator of mitophagy through dephosphorylation of p-Ser65-Ub. Our data demonstrate that a significant portion of PTEN-L localizes at the outer mitochondrial membrane and is able to prevent PRKN’s mitochondrial translocation, reduce the phosphorylation of PRKN, impair its E3 ligase activity as well as maintain PRKN in a closed/inactive status. Moreover, we found that PTEN-L dephosphorylates p-Ser65-Ub to disrupt the feedforward mechanism of mitophagy. Our findings suggest that PTEN-L acts as a brake in the regulation of mitophagy.

Abbreviations: ATR: alternatively translated region; CCCP: carbonylcyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone; DUBs: deubiquitinating enzymes; MFN2: mitofusion2; MS/MS: tandem mass spectrometry; mtDNA: mitochondrial DNA; MTS: mitochondrial targeting sequences; O/A: oligomycin and antimycin A; PINK1: PTEN induced putative kinase 1; PRKN/parkin: parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase; PTEN: phosphatase and tensin homolog; PTEN-L: phosphatase and tensin homolog-long; Ub: ubiquitin; USP: ubiquitin-specific proteases; YFP: yellow fluorescence protein.     

IP3 receptor blockade restores autophagy and mitochondrial function in skeletal muscle fibers of dystrophic mice

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is characterized by a severe and progressive destruction of muscle fibers associated with altered Ca²⁺ homeostasis. We have previously shown that the IP₃ receptor (IP₃R) plays a role in elevating basal cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ and that pharmacological blockade of IP₃R restores muscle function. Moreover, we have shown that the IP₃R pathway negatively regulates autophagy by controlling mitochondrial Ca²⁺ levels. Nevertheless, it remains unclear whether IP₃R is involved in abnormal mitochondrial Ca²⁺ levels, mitochondrial dynamics, or autophagy and mitophagy observed in adult DMD skeletal muscle. Here, we show that the elevated basal autophagy and autophagic flux levels were normalized when IP₃R was downregulated in mdx fibers. Pharmacological blockade of IP₃R in mdx fibers restored both increased mitochondrial Ca²⁺ levels and mitochondrial membrane potential under resting conditions. Interestingly, mdx mitochondria changed from a fission to an elongated state after IP₃R knockdown, and the elevated mitophagy levels in mdx fibers were normalized. To our knowledge, this is the first study associating IP₃R1 activity with changes in autophagy, mitochondrial Ca²⁺ levels, mitochondrial membrane potential, mitochondrial dynamics, and mitophagy in adult mouse skeletal muscle. Moreover, these results suggest that increased IP₃R activity in mdx fibers plays an important role in the pathophysiology of DMD. Overall, these results lead us to propose the use of specific IP₃R blockers as a new pharmacological treatment for DMD, given their ability to restore both autophagy/mitophagy and mitochondrial function.