Reproductive ecology of tropical forest trees in logged and fragmented habitats in Thailand and Costa Rica

Invertebrates mediate several important ecological processes, including pollination and seed predation, and events that affect invertebrate diversity or behaviour can potentially disrupt forest regeneration processes. This study investigates the impact of logging in Thailand and forest fragmentation in Costa Rica on the pollination and seed production of two self-incompatible forest trees. Logging in a dry deciduous dipterocarp forest in Thailand resulted in reduced densities of the common dipterocarp treeShorea siamensis and variably isolated individual trees. The number of flower visits to S. siamensis by pollinating Trigona bees was not affected by logging disturbance. However, pollinators did spend longer periods of time foraging in the canopies of isolated trees which were more prevalent in logged areas where tree density had been reduced. Consequently, at the logged site few cross-pollinations were effected and fruit set of S. siamensis was considerably lower than at nearby unlogged sites where distances between flowering conspecifics were smaller. Reduced fruit set has long-term implications for the recovery of S. siamensis populations in disturbed areas, and local population genetic structure is likely to be affected as reduced outcrossing rates among trees in disturbed regions results in relatively inbred seed. In Costa Rica forest fragmentation has restricted the once widespread tree Anacardium excelsum to forest patches located in an agriculturally-dominated landscape. As with S. siamensis, the abundance of pollinators, also Trigona bees, in the canopies of A. excelsum was largely unaffected by fragment size. Nevertheless, pollination success and seed production was positively correlated with fragment size. We propose that small bees rarely move between forest fragments and gene exchange through pollination occurs predominantly among trees within fragments and, together with likely low genetic variability in small fragments, that this contributes to the observed reduced fertilisation and seed set of A. excelsum. Thus increased tree isolation tree through selective logging or habitat fragmentation by forest clearance can result in reduced seed set due to changes in the foraging patterns of poorly mobile pollinators. Even if population sizes of the pollinators are maintained following environmental perturbation, this study shows that disturbance may disrupt pollination processes through changes in pollinator foraging behaviour. More attention needs to be focussed on changes in the behaviour of species involved in key ecological interactions following disturbance events in tropical forests.     

Unfavorable successional pathways and the conservation value of logged tropical forest

Conservation agencies are increasingly advocating that the survival of many tropical forest species may depend on disturbed forests and are directing scarce conservation resources to managing logged forests. This requires critical evaluation. In this 10-year study, we quantify tree community dynamics in three selectively logged areas harvested at different intensities and compare their recovery to two unlogged areas in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Over the 10 years, 527 of the original 4840 tagged trees (10cm DBH) died; while the mortality rate was highest in the heavily logged area, it was only significantly greater than one of the unlogged sites. The density of new trees varied significantly among areas being highest in the lightly logged area, but the density of new recruits in the heavily logged area did not differ from the unlogged areas. Overall, the more heavily logged areas had higher growth rates than the unlogged or lightly logged areas. However, there was no difference among areas in the magnitude of the change in basal area; and in both 1990 (20+ years post-harvest) and 2000 the basal area in the heavily logged area was significantly less than the unlogged areas. In general, findings from the heavily logged area suggest that the expectation that in logged areas a number of processes of forest regeneration will be accelerated relative to unlogged forest was not met. Thus, 30+ years after logging evidence suggests that forest recovery will be slower than expected. We also present evidence to suggest that the climate in the region is changing, which may account for changes in the population dynamics of certain species in the unlogged forests.     

伐区采育结合作业优化模式的选择

在定量计算和分析闽北地区马尾松林各伐区采育结合作业系统的经济和生态效益的基础上,应用“系统集对分析方法”对其综合效益进行评价,结果表明,由40%择伐强度、原木人力集材、归带清理采伐迹地和人工促进天然更新等组合而成的作业模式是福建北部马尾松林的优化作业模式,适合于就近类似本试验自然条件的林区.     

天童几种常绿阔叶林优势种在砍伐后萌枝更新的初步研究

对以萌生方式形成的木荷、石栎、苦槠、栲树、米槠植株的根桩和萌枝状况进行了调查及测量。结果显示各种类萌枝数的大小顺序是:木荷>苦槠>石栎>米槠>栲树;结合萌枝状况可以推断萌枝能力的大小顺序应该是:木荷>苦槠>石栎>栲树>米槠。砍伐对木荷、石栎、苦槠、栲树、米槠萌芽更新都会造成影响,对栲树、米槠影响更大,而对木荷、石栎、苦槠影响较小。从植物萌生角度来说,这是形成研究地区大面积的以木荷、石栎、苦槠为优势种组成的次生灌丛的主要原因。     

Recovery of conservation values in Central African rain forest after logging and shifting cultivation

Secondary forests in Central Africa are increasing in importance for biodiversity conservation as old growth forests outside the few protected areas are disappearing rapidly. We examined vegetation recovery in a lowland rain forest area in Cameroon based on a detailed botanical survey of old growth forest and different-aged logging gaps (5–27 years) and shifting cultivation fields (10–60 years). Our analysis focuses on the long-term recovery of botanical conservation values by analysing trends in vegetation structure, species composition, species diversity and levels of endemism and rarity. In the total survey (4.25 ha), we recorded 834 species of which 23% were endemic to the Lower Guinea forest region. The proportion of endemic species was high in shrubs and low in herbs. Geographic range and (local) rarity were not significantly associated. The proportion of rare species (relative frequency <10%) was high in woody climbers and low in trees. In logging gaps, recovery of all vegetation characteristics was relatively quick (5–14 years). Recovery in shifting cultivation sites took longer (30–60 years). Endemic species were found to be highly sensitive to shifting cultivation practices and even after 50–60 years the level of endemism was still significantly lower compared to old growth forest. The proportion of rare species was not significantly different between disturbed sites and old growth forest. We conclude that secondary forests can contribute to biodiversity conservation, e.g. as buffer zones around protected areas. However, this contribution should be assessed differently between land use types and widespread versus endemic species.     

Gap size effects on photoinhibition in understorey saplings in tropical rainforest

The sudden increase in irradiance after canopy disturbance in primary forest together with the accompanying increase in leaf temperatures is known to cause photoinhibition in shade acclimated foliage of understorey plants. We hypothesized that there is species specific variation among understorey saplings in the magnitude of photoinhibition in response to gap creation, which is related to their requirement for overstorey disturbance. Eleven more or less circular gaps were created varying in size from 60 up to 1459 m². Photoinhibition was assessed by determining predawn and midday F_v/F_m using chlorophyll fluorescence at two occasions during the first 3 weeks after creation of the gaps. The light environment was assessed using hemispherical photography. Five species that occurred in sufficient numbers in the understorey after gap creation were measured. They all showed an increase of photoinhibition with increasing gap size. Variation in exposure to direct sunlight within gaps contributed also to variation in photoinhibition. Dynamic photoinhibition, the overnight increase in F_v/F_m, was about 20% of total photoinhibition as measured at midday. The species responded quantitatively different. Oxandra asbeckii was most sensitive as evident from a decrease of predawn F_v/F_m from 0.79 in the understorey of undisturbed forest to 0.70 in the smallest and further to 0.41 in the largest gaps. Catostemma fragrans, the least sensitive species showed hardly any photoinhibition in the smallest gaps and less in the largest ones, whereas Lecythis concertiflora, Licania heteromorpha, and Chlorocardium rodiei had intermediate responses. Species rank order in sensitivity to photoinhibition was maintained across the whole range of gap sizes. The relationship between sensitivity to photoinhibition and species-specific gap size preference for regeneration is discussed.     

Distribution,population density,and status of sympatric cercopithecids in the Campo-Ma’an area,southwestern cameroon

A study on species composition, distribution, and population density of cercopithecids in the Campo-Ma’an area, Southwestern Cameroon, was undertaken from December 1997 until August 2000. A total of 665.5 km of line transects was used for the census. Thirteen diurnal primate species including five endangered species (Gorilla g. gorilla, Pan troglodytes, Mandrillus sphinx, Colobus satanas, Cercocebus torquatus) were recorded in the Campo Forest, the greatest part of which is a logging concession.Cercopithecus nictitans (1.43 groups/km²),C. cephus (1.13 groups/km²),C. pogonias (0.81 groups/km²), andC. torquatus (0.51 groups/km²) occurred at medium frequencies compared to figures from other Central African study sites. Mandrill densities estimated (0.27 groups/km²) show that the area is very important for the conservation of this rare species. Guenon densities found inside areas with a high level of human activities did not differ significantly from densities estimated in areas with a lower level of human activities.C. torquatus densities were significantly higher in the areas with a low level of human disturbance and encounter rates withLophocebus albigena also indicate a preference of less disturbed areas. Mangabeys are thus likely to be adversely affected by human activities in the area. In the Ma’an Forest, which has not been logged yet, ten species were confirmed. The population densities of two guenons (C. nictitans andC. cephus) were estimated to be twice as high in the unlogged forest area as compared to the logged forest of Campo. Other species are rarer in the Ma’an Forest than in the Campo Forest. Although mangabeys are adversely affected by human activities, the results still indicate that selective logging may be compatible with the conservation of cercopithecids, if a reduced damage logging concept and antipoaching measures are implemented. Increased hunting activities following logging operations will definitely have a negative longterm impact on primate populations in the Campo-Ma’an area if no further, more effective conservation measures will regulate wildlife use in future.     

The effect of fertilization on litter decomposition in clearfelled spruce stands

Summary The influence of NPK-fertilizer on decomposition of litter layers and deposited logging residues (brash) on a clearfelled Sitka spruce stand was followed during two years by zero-tension lysimetry and litterbags. Root development of second rotation planted trees on this peaty gley soil are restricted to the litter layers (LFH) and without fertilizer are dependent on its decomposition for release of nutrients. A comparison of fertilized and control plots showed few site differences and similar hydrological properties. Fertilizer addition (urea-N, rock-P and KCl) immediately raised leachate concentrations of NH₄−N, K and PO₄−P, the last remaining high over the period. NO₃−N increased dramatically in the second year leachates from the fertilized area. Within two years 45, 60 and 75% of added NPK respectively were recovered in leachates. Two-year-old litter in litterbags lost weight significantly more slowly after fertilization. The calculated values were 0.28 (control plot) and 0.15 (fertilized plot). Mean values were derived from individual regressions and allowed microsite variation to be assessed. The difference in is attributed to available C limitation although N concentration of needles increased on both plots, P concentration increased slowly on the control plot while K and Mg decreased on both. Ca concentrations doubled with fertilization and remained constant over two years. The rapid loss of fertilizer and slight response from planted trees indicate delayed application of fertilizers may be desirable.     

Molecular monitoring of protected fungi: mycelium persistence in soil after timber harvest

The largely subterranean nature of the mycorrhizal fungal life form impedes efforts to monitor protected fungi and evaluate the effectiveness of mitigations in timber harvest areas. In this study we developed and tested a multiplex PCR system capable of detecting 14 listed Phaeocollybia species in soil. We then investigated the persistence of Phaeocollybia species at three sites in northwestern Oregon where Phaeocollybia attenuata and other Phaeocollybia sporocarps had been observed prior to timber harvest. The three sites had three different levels of protection for the fungi. One site was in a buffer zone next to a thinned area, one was within a thinned area, and one was in a clearcut area. The method was effective at detecting the target species in soil. We detected Phaeocollybia species in the soil at all sites, even in the clearcut after 12 yr, during which no sporocarps were observed.     

Financial and energy cost of low-impact wood extraction in environmentally sensitive areas

The authors compared the financial and energy performance of horse and tractor skidding, under the conditions of continuous cover forestry (CCF) operations in steep terrain. Horse skidding incurs lower unit costs than tractor skidding, when the extraction distance is short or when pre-existing skidding trails are not available. The cost-efficiency of horse skidding is significantly increased by detaching two horses per driver, since the additional cost of the second horse is lower than the additional productivity it generates. Furthermore, it is more difficult to find drivers than horses, and using two horses per driver is a good way to extend the capacity of the few remaining horse-logging operations. Horse logging requires from 8 to 20 times less fossil energy inputs than tractor extraction, and a significant share of its fossil energy use (10-50%) is caused by relocation on motor vehicles. When necessary, trail building adds 30-60% to the unit consumption of fossil energy in the tractor system. In general, the forestry system considered in this study requires from 12 to 60 times less fossil energy than conventional agricultural systems, and it contributes very little to the dependence on non-renewable energy sources.